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PROMISED LAND

The “Promised Land” is the name given to the area promised by God to Abraham and his descendants. Thus it more or less refers to the same territory described by such terms as “Canaan,” “Palestine,” “Israel,” and “the Holy Land.” But “Promised Land” emphasizes the fact that this territory was a gift from God to the Israelites.

HISTORY

The importance of this land area is first seen in the Bible when God called Abraham out of Ur and into Canaan. This was a turning point in God’s relations with humankind. Beginning at this point, he would focus on one people group, living in one area, in his program of salvation.

The Lord made two promises to Abraham. First, the patriarch would have many descendants. And second, those descendants would occupy the land of Canaan. The promises of land and descendants are tied up together.

The first time God made the promise of land to Abraham was when Abraham was new in Canaan (Genesis 12:7). But he repeated the promise at least four additional times throughout the remaining years of Abraham’s life (Genesis 13:14-17; 15:7, 18-21; 17:8; 22:17).

God made the same promise to Abraham’s son Isaac (Genesis 26:3-4) and grandson Jacob (Genesis 28:13-15; 35:12). But none of the three patriarchs ever possessed the land themselves. They were nomads, moving from place to place with their herds. All they ever possessed was the burial cave of Machpelah, near Hebron, where they were all laid to rest (Genesis 23; 49:29-32). It was left for another generation of Hebrews to possess the land.

After the period of the patriarchs, the Hebrew people lived in Egypt as slaves for many years. Then Moses led them out of Egypt and they lived in the wilderness of Sinai for forty years. Only after that, under the leadership of Joshua, did the people begin their conquest of Canaan, the Promised Land. All this had been foretold centuries before to the original recipient of the promise: Abraham (Genesis 15:13-16).

Even after possessing the land, the people needed to realize that it was a gift to them from God. And in fact, it was God, not they, who owned the land. The Lord said to them, “The land ... really belongs to me. You are only foreigners and tenants living with me” (Leviticus 25:23).

The Hebrew people could continue to live in the Promised Land only as long as they were faithful to God. If they were disobedient, God warned them before they conquered Canaan, “You [will] disappear from the land you are about to enter and occupy. For the Lord will scatter you among all the nations from one end of the earth to the other” (Deuteronomy 28:63-64).

The eventual diaspora of the Jews shows that the promise of their own special land was a promise that the Jews should not have taken for granted.

GEOGRAPHY

The Bible gives a couple of descriptions of the Promised Land’s extent. God told Abraham, “I have given this land to your descendants, all the way from the border of Egypt to the great Euphrates River” (Genesis 15:18). At another point the Lord said, “I will fix your boundaries from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, and from the southern deserts to the Euphrates River” (Exodus 23:31).

With these descriptions, we can define the borders of the Promised Land pretty exactly.

1. On the west, the Mediterranean Sea provided the border.

2. On the east, the margin of the desert lands served as a border. The eastern side of the Promised Land presumably included Edom, Moab, Ammon, and Gilead, all lying between the Jordan River valley and the Arabian desert.

3. On the south, the border was marked by two natural features. One was the “Brook of Egypt.” Today called Wadi el-Arish, this seasonal river forms a natural boundary between Israel’s southern Negev Desert and Egypt’s Sinai Peninsula. The second natural boundary point was the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba, an extension of the Red Sea. The Israelite port city of Ezion-Geber was established there.

4. On the north, the nearest loop of the Euphrates River, in the area of the city of Tiphsah, supplied a boundary.

Did the Israelites ever control the whole Promised Land? Apparently they did, for a brief while, during the nation’s greatest extent under King Solomon (1 Kings 4:24). But the constant change in the borders of the nation throughout its history tells a story of the people’s difficulty in fully occupying the Promised Land.

Some theologians think the promise of land to the Jewish people is yet to be fulfilled in a literal way. They see the modern state of Israel as a foothold from which the Jewish people will eventually reach out and possess the entire land area promised to Abraham.

Other theologians are not so sure. They point out that God’s promise of land was fulfilled literally in biblical times. They also argue that, if the promise is yet to be fulfilled in some sense, its fulfillment is of a spiritual sort as Christ’s followers dwell in the “promised land” of heaven.

LEADERSHIP

LEADERSHIP PRINCIPLES

WHAT ARE SOME QUALITIES OF EFFECTIVE LEADERS?

BIBLE READING: Exodus 6:1-12

KEY BIBLE VERSE: Therefore, say to the Israelites: “I am the LORD, and I will free you from your slavery in Egypt. I will redeem you with mighty power and great acts of judgment.” (Exodus 6:6)

EFFECTIVE LEADERS PERSEVERE THROUGH TOUGH TIMES.

When Moses gave God’s message to the people, they were too discouraged to listen. The Hebrews didn’t want to hear any more about God and his promises, because the last time they listened to Moses, all they got was more work and greater suffering. Sometimes a clear message from God is followed by a period when no change in the situation is apparent. During that time, seeming setbacks may turn people away from wanting to hear more about God. If you are a leader, don’t give up. Keep bringing people God’s message as Moses did. By focusing on God, who must be obeyed, rather than on the results to be achieved, good leaders see beyond temporary setbacks and reversals.

BIBLE READING: Exodus 39:32-43

KEY BIBLE VERSE: Moses inspected all their work and blessed them because it had been done as the LORD had commanded him. (Exodus 39:43)

EFFECTIVE LEADERS DELEGATE.

Moses had learned his management lesson well. He gave important responsibilities to others and then trusted them to do the job. Great leaders, like Moses, give plans and direction while letting others participate on the team. If you are a leader, trust your assistants with key responsibilities.

EFFECTIVE LEADERS APPRECIATE THE WORK OF OTHERS.

Moses inspected the finished work, saw that it was done the way God wanted, and then blessed the people. A good leader follows up on assigned tasks and gives rewards for good work. In whatever responsible position you find yourself, follow up to make sure that tasks are completed as intended, and show your appreciation to the people who have helped.

BIBLE READING: Deuteronomy 1:9-18

KEY BIBLE VERSE: At that time I told you, “You are too great a burden for me to carry all by myself.” (Deuteronomy 1:9)

EFFECTIVE LEADERS RECOGNIZE THEIR LIMITATIONS.

It was a tremendous burden for Moses to lead the nation by himself. He could not accomplish the task single-handedly. Like nations, as organizations and churches grow, they become increasingly complex. Conflicting needs and quarrels arise. No longer can one leader make all the decisions. Like Moses, you may have a natural tendency to try to do all the work alone. You may be afraid or embarrassed to ask for help. Moses made a wise decision to share the leadership with others. Rather than trying to handle larger responsibilities alone, look for ways of sharing the load so that others may exercise their God-given gifts and abilities.

EFFECTIVE LEADERS CULTIVATE GOOD CHARACTER QUALITIES.

Moses identified some of the inner qualities of good leaders: (1) wisdom, (2) understanding, and (3) respect. These characteristics differ markedly from the ones that often help elect leaders today: good looks, wealth, popularity, willingness to do anything to get to the top. The qualities Moses identified should be evident in us as we lead, and we should look for them in those we elect to positions of leadership.

BIBLE READING: Luke 22:7-38

KEY BIBLE VERSE: Jesus told them, “In this world the kings and great men order their people around, and yet they are called ’friends of the people.’ ” (Luke 22:25)

EFFECTIVE LEADERS ARE SERVANTS.

The world’s system of leadership is very different from leadership in God’s kingdom. Worldly leaders are often selfish and arrogant as they claw their way to the top. (Some kings in the ancient world gave themselves the title “Benefactor.") But among Christians, the leader is to be the one who serves best. There are different styles of leadership-some lead through public speaking, some through administering, some through relationships-but every Christian leader needs a servant’s heart. Ask the people you lead how you can serve them better.

BIBLE READING: Hebrews 2:1-18

KEY BIBLE VERSE: It was only right that God-who made everything and for whom everything was made-should bring his many children into glory. Through the suffering of Jesus, God made him a perfect leader, one fit to bring them into their salvation. (Hebrews 2:10)

CHRIST DEMONSTRATED EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP THROUGH SUFFERING.

How was Jesus made perfect through suffering? Jesus’ suffering made him a perfect leader, or pioneer, of our salvation. Jesus did not need to suffer for his own salvation, because he was God in human form. His perfect obedience (which led him down the road of suffering) demonstrates that he was the complete sacrifice for us. Through suffering, Jesus completed the work necessary for our own salvation. Our suffering can make us more sensitive servants of God. People who have known pain are able to reach out with compassion to others who hurt. If you have suffered, ask God how your experience can be used to help others.

CHRIST IS THE BEST MODEL FOR EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP.

God’s grace to us led Christ to his death. Jesus did not come into the world to gain status or political power, but to suffer and die so that we could have eternal life ("glory"). If it is difficult for us to identify with Christ’s servant attitude, perhaps we need to evaluate our own motives. Are we more interested in power or participation, domination or service, getting or giving?

LEADERSHIP IN THE CHURCH

IN WHAT WAYS IS LEADERSHIP TO BE EXERCISED IN THE CHURCH?

BIBLE READING: Nehemiah 3:1-32

KEY BIBLE VERSE: Eliashib the high priest and the other priests started to rebuild at the Sheep Gate. They dedicated it and set up its doors, building the wall as far as the Tower of the Hundred, which they dedicated, and the Tower of Hananel. (Nehemiah 3:1)

CHURCH LEADERSHIP WORKS WHEN ALL DO THEIR PART.

All the citizens of Jerusalem did their part on the huge job of rebuilding the city wall. Similarly, the work of the church requires every member’s effort in order for the body of Christ to function effectively (1 Corinthians 12:12-27). The body needs you! Are you doing your part? Find a place to serve God, and start contributing whatever time, talent, and money is needed.

BIBLE READING: 1 Corinthians 12:12-31

KEY BIBLE VERSE: The human body has many parts, but the many parts make up only one body. So it is with the body of Christ. (1 Corinthians 12:12)

EVERY BELIEVER HAS AN IMPORTANT AREA OF SERVICE.

Using the analogy of the body, Paul emphasizes the importance of each church member. If a seemingly insignificant part is taken away, the whole body becomes less effective. Thinking that your gift is more important than someone else’s is an expression of spiritual pride. We should not look down on those who seem unimportant, and we should not be jealous of others who have impressive gifts. Instead, we should use the gifts we have been given and encourage others to use theirs. If we don’t, the body of believers will be less effective.

ISRAELITES

The Israelites were God’s chosen people group. They were the people God helped to win battles and to conquer land. God pulled the Israelites out of slavery and brought them to another home in another land.

Jacob was the first Israelite. The book of Genesis describes a wrestling match Jacob had with God. After a night of wrestling, Jacob lost and God gave him a new name, “Israel” (Genesis 32:28). Jacob’s twelve sons were the premier generation of God’s people. The Israelites went through many phases of obedience and disobedience to God. Nevertheless, God’s promise to the Israelite people to make them a great nation was fulfilled in Jesus Christ, a descendant from David.

JERICHO

Jericho was an ancient city on the west side of the Jordan River. The name Jericho may be connected to the ancient name of the Canaanite moon god. The Hebrew words for moon, month, new moon, and Jericho are very similar. Others associate it with the word for spirit or smell. They feel that the pleasant fragrances of the fruits and spices that grew in this oasis helped to name the place. The Old Testament occasionally calls it “the city of palm trees” (for example, Deuteronomy 34:3; 2 Chronicles 28:15).

Jericho was located on the west side of the Jordan River about five miles from the southern-most fords and about ten miles northwest of the Dead Sea. Being in the broad part of the plain of the Jordan, it lies nearly 1,000 feet below sea level and about 3,500 feet below Jerusalem, which was a mere 17 miles away. This simple fact explains the words in Jesus’ parable of the good Samaritan, “down from Jerusalem to Jericho” (Luke 10:30).

PREBIBLICAL RECORD

Jericho was a large and thriving city for centuries before the Bible first mentions it in connection with the exodus from Egypt. In fact, Jericho is one of the oldest cities in the world. Its remains date to and before the Neolithic Age ten thousand years ago.

There are three reasons primitive people would have chosen this site, first as a settlement and eventually as a key city.

1. It has a plentiful spring, now called Elisha’s Fountain (compare 2 Kings 2:18-22).

2. It has a warm climate in the winter, although “hot” describes it in the summer.

3. It is strategically located at a Jordan ford and at the base of several routes leading westward to the foothills.

The comings and goings of various populations can be reconstructed only sketchily. The civilizations grew more complex over the years. The simple, food-gathering population gave way to a relatively complex urban society, complete with king, soldiers, and guest houses. This is the Jericho that Joshua encountered. The first certain identification of its inhabitants occurs in Numbers 13:29: “The Hittites, the Jebusites, and the Amorites dwell in the hill country; and the Canaanites dwell by the sea, and along the Jordan” (RSV).

IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

The Jericho of the Old Testament is best known as the first city taken by the invading Israelites through the miracle of the falling walls. Israel had spent some time on the east bank of the Jordan in the plains of Moab (Numbers 22:1; Numbers 26:3, Numbers 63). There, they targeted Jericho as the first military objective in the conquest. Joshua sent spies to survey the land and the city. Rahab the harlot took them in and later helped them escape. For her cooperation, she and her family were spared when Israel destroyed the city (Joshua 2:1, Joshua 6:1). The fall of the city itself occurred after the Israelites had marched around it in silence, except for the continual blowing of trumpets, once a day for six days and then seven times on the seventh day. Then, as the priests blew the trumpets, the people shouted and the walls collapsed.

Joshua laid a curse on anyone who might rebuild Jericho (Joshua 6:26). The curse was fulfilled about five hundred years later when Hiel rebuilt the city at the cost of two of his sons (1 Kings 16:34).

Jericho was in the territory of Benjamin but right on the border with the territory of Ephraim to the north (Joshua 16:1, Joshua 7; Joshua 18:12, 21). It appears in scattered incidents throughout the rest of the Old Testament. In 2 Samuel 10:5 (see also 1 Chronicles 19:5) David had his humiliated ambassadors wait there until their beards grew back. It served as a kind of headquarters for Elisha and apparently was where a “company of the prophets” lived (2 Kings 2:5; compare 1 Samuel 10:5). During the time of Ahaz, a return of prisoners took place there (2 Chronicles 28:15). When Jerusalem fell in 586 B.C., the reigning king, Zedekiah, fled to near Jericho but was caught by the Babylonians. They later put out his eyes at Riblah in Syria (2 Kings 25:5; Jeremiah 39:5; Jeremiah 52:8). The last Old Testament references to Jericho are in the census lists of Ezra (Ezra 2:34) and Nehemiah (Nehemiah 7:36). Men from Jericho also helped rebuild the Jerusalem wall (Nehemiah 3:2).

IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

The Jericho of New Testament times was built by Herod more than a mile to the south of the Old Testament site. It is possible to sort out the healing of the blind men episodes in the Gospels by understanding that Jesus was passing from the site of ancient Jericho (Matthew 20:29; Mark 10:46) and approaching Herodian Jericho (Luke 18:35). The modern city of Jericho includes both these sites. As Jesus passed through Jericho (Luke 19:1) he met and ate with Zacchaeus, the wealthy chief tax collector of the new Roman Jericho. The city also figures in the parable of the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:30-37).

ARCHEOLOGY AT JERICHO

Jericho was excavated first by Charles Warren in 1868, then by Ernst Sellin and Carl Watzinger in 1907–11, and then by John Garstang in 1930–36. Garstang thought he had found the wall that fell before the Israelites, but the more thorough, scientific, and widely accepted results of the investigations by Kathleen Kenyon in 1952–56 showed that the topmost level of ruins was already too early to tell anything of the city of Joshua’s day. To her goes the credit for uncovering and interpreting the many layers of civilizations that date back to 8000 B.C. at Jericho.

POSTBIBLICAL RECORD

While ancient Jericho was of small consequence after its destruction under Joshua, the Jericho of Herod was a city of beauty and importance. But even this city fell into decay with the decline of Roman influence in the Middle East. Most of what we know of the city until modern times comes from the writings of pilgrims to the Holy Land. They usually report seeing certain things of biblical significance, such as the tree that Zacchaeus climbed. But they also report that Jericho was a filthy, wretched Muslim village. It remained that way until relatively recent times, when it grew in size and importance as a major West Bank city.

ACHAN, ACHAR

Member of Judah’s tribe who kept some of the spoils from the Israelite victory at Jericho in violation of Joshua’s order and God’s command (Joshua 6:1–7:1). A subsequent Israelite defeat at Ai, a weaker city than Jericho, revealed God’s anger to Joshua. With God’s help, Joshua determined which of the Israelites had been guilty of disobedience. Achan confessed that he had buried a robe and some gold and silver from Jericho in his tent (Joshua 7:20-22). The recovered loot was taken to the valley of Achor (meaning “trouble,” “calamity”), where Achan and his family were stoned. In the Hebrew text, 1 Chronicles 2:7 gives Achan’s name as Achar (“disaster”) because he “brought disaster on Israel by taking plunder that had been set apart for the LORD” (NLT).

HEROES

WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF REAL HEROES?

BIBLE READING: Judges 21:1-25

KEY BIBLE VERSE: In those days Israel had no king, so the people did whatever seemed right in their own eyes. (Judges 21:25)

REAL HEROES SUBMIT TO GOD’S AUTHORITY.

During the time of the judges, the people of Israel experienced trouble because everyone became his own authority and acted on his own opinions of right and wrong. This produced horrendous results. Our world is similar. Individuals, groups, and societies have made themselves the final authorities without reference to God. When people selfishly satisfy their personal desires at all costs, everyone pays the price.

REAL HEROES ARE MODELS IN EVERY AREA OF LIFE.

It is the ultimate heroic act to submit all our plans, desires, and motives to God. Men like Gideon, Jephthah, and Samson are known for their heroism in battle. But their personal lives were far from heroic.

REAL HEROES MAINTAIN CONSISTENCY THROUGHOUT LIFE.

To be truly heroic, we must go into battle each day in our home, job, church, and society to make God’s kingdom a reality. Our weapons are the standards, morals, truths, and convictions we receive from God’s Word. We will lose the battle if we gather the spoils of earthly treasures rather than seeking the treasures of heaven.

BIBLE READING: Psalm 101:1-8

KEY BIBLE VERSE: I will keep a protective eye on the godly, so they may dwell with me in safety. Only those who are above reproach will be allowed to serve me. (Psalm 101:6)

GODLY HEROES AVOID ALL FORMS OF WICKEDNESS.

David may have written this psalm early in his reign as king as he set down the standards he wanted to follow. David knew that to lead a blameless life he would need God’s help (101:2). We can lead blameless lives if we avoid (1) looking at wickedness ("I will refuse to look at anything vile and vulgar,” 101:3), (2) perverse ideas (101:4), (3) slander (101:5), and (4) pride (101:5). While avoiding the wrongs listed above, we must also let God’s Word show us the standards by which to live.

GODLY HEROES ARE THE BEST ONES TO HAVE.

David said that he would keep his eyes “on the godly.” In other words, he would choose as models and as friends those who are truthful and who love God. Our friends and associates can have a profound influence on our life. Make sure to keep your eyes on those who are faithful to God and his Word.

BIBLE READING: Acts 28:1-31

KEY BIBLE VERSE: For the next two years, Paul lived in his own rented house. He welcomed all who visited him, proclaiming the Kingdom of God with all boldness and teaching about the Lord Jesus Christ. And no one tried to stop him. (Acts 28:30-31)

GOD DOES HIS GREATEST WORK THROUGH UNSUNG HEROES.

The book of Acts deals with the history of the Christian church and its expansion in ever-widening circles touching Jerusalem, Antioch, Ephesus, and Rome-the most influential cities in the Western world. Acts also shows the mighty miracles and testimonies of the heroes and martyrs of the early church-Peter, Stephen, James, and Paul. All the ministry was prompted and held together by the Holy Spirit working in the lives of ordinary people-merchants, travelers, slaves, jailers, church leaders, males, females, Gentiles, Jews, rich, poor. Many unsung heroes of the faith continued the work, through the Holy Spirit, in succeeding generations, changing the world with a changeless message-that Jesus Christ is Savior and Lord for all who call on him. Today we can be the unsung heroes in the continuing story of the spread of the gospel. It is that same message that we Christians are to take to our world so that many more may hear and believe.

NAOMI

Naomi was the wife of Elimelech and the mother of Mahlon and Chilion. A member of Judah’s tribe, she lived in Bethlehem during the period of the judges. Her story is told in the book of Ruth. Because of a severe famine in Canaan, Naomi temporarily resettled with her family in the land of Moab, east of the Dead Sea (Ruth 1:1-2). Following the death of her husband and two sons in Moab (Ruth 1:3-5), Naomi returned to Bethlehem with Ruth, her Moabitess daughter-in-law (Ruth 1:8-22). Upon meeting her friends, she told them not to call her Naomi, meaning “pleasant,” but Mara, meaning “bitter.” She said, “I went away full, but the LORD has brought me home empty” (Ruth 1:20-21). Naomi’s domestic problems were eventually resolved when Ruth married Boaz, Elimelech’s near kin (Ruth 2-4).

BETHLEHEM

1. Bethlehem is the “City of David” and the place where Jesus Christ was born, five miles south of Jerusalem. This city is sometimes called Bethlehem-judah (KJV) or Ephrath (Genesis 35:19; Micah 5:2) to keep it from being confused with another city, Bethlehem of Zebulun.

Bethlehem was first settled by the Canaanites and was associated with the earliest fathers (or “patriarchs”) of Israel, because Rachel died and was buried near it (Genesis 35:16, 19; Genesis 48:7). The earliest mention of Bethlehem is in some ancient battle reports, written fourteen hundred years before Christ’s birth, which refer to a city named bitil u-lahama south of Jerusalem. This name may have meant “house of (the goddess) Lahama.” A branch of Caleb’s family settled there, and Caleb’s son Salma was known as “the father of Bethlehem” (1 Chronicles 2:51). Bethlehem was the home of a young Levite who served as priest to Micah (Judges 17:7-8), and of Boaz, Ruth, Obed, and Jesse, the Bethlehemite, David’s father (Ruth 4:11-17; 1 Samuel 16:18).

Bethlehem was the birthplace of David (1 Samuel 17:12) and the home of one of David’s mighty men, Elhanan (2 Samuel 23:24; 1 Chronicles 11:26). Three of David’s warriors performed a daring deed there by breaking through a chain of Philistine warriors who had taken over the city to bring David water from a well near the city gate of his hometown (2 Samuel 23:14-17). Much later, Bethlehem is mentioned as being next to the village of Geruth-kimham, where Jews running from the Babylonians stayed while they were on their way to Egypt (Jeremiah 41:17). People from Bethlehem were part of the group of Jews who returned to Israel after living in exile in Babylon (Ezra 2:21; Nehemiah 7:26; 1 Esdras 5:17).

When Jesus was born there, Bethlehem was only a small village (Matthew 2:1-16; Luke 2:4-6, 15; John 7:42). Under the law declared by Caesar Augustus, the emperor of Rome, Joseph had to go to Bethlehem because he was part of the family of David (Luke 2:4). The family may still have had property there. The birth of Jesus may have taken place in a cave in the rocks outside the town. The early Christian writer Justin Martyr thought so, as did another writer, Origen, some years later. Origen often lived in the Holy Land (the area where Jesus had lived) and wrote, “In Bethlehem you are shown the cave where he was born, and within the cave the manger where he was wrapped in swaddling clothes.”

Jerome, another early Christian writer, later described the cave where the Roman Emperor Constantine had built a church. In 1934–35, some evidence was found near Bethlehem that suggested a second period of building in the time of a later emperor, Justinian (AD 527–565), during which Constantine’s church was extended past its original boundaries. Steps led down to the cave, which seems to have been shaped artificially into a square, perhaps by Constantine’s builders. But there is no description of the cave from before the construction of Constantine’s church.

2. Bethlehem is also the name of a town in Zebulun (Joshua 19:15), probably the home of the judge Ibzan (Judges 12:8-10), an early ruler of Israel. Today it is considered to be the same place as the village of Beit Lahm, some seven miles northwest of Nazareth.

MOAB, MOABITES

Moab was a small kingdom on a high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea, an area that was once called Transjordan. Moabites were the people who settled and inhabited this kingdom. The sharp slope of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in proportion to the kingdom’s military might. The outer Heshbon vicinity formed the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the more central Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioned as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, which demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.

Most of Moab is gently rolling land divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Numbers 21:21-22; Judges 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pastureland (2 Kings 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY

According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Genesis 19:34-37). Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not clear. The Moabite kingdom proper existed from around 1300 B.C. to 600 B.C., but little information is available about its beginnings. Any knowledge of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and Old Testament texts.

Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Numbers 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Joshua 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his Hebrew enemies (Numbers 22-24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (Numbers 32). At one point (Numbers 25) the Hebrews joined with the Moabites in Shittim (also called Acacia) in their celebration and idol worship. From that time onward, the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.

Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Judges 3:12-30). By the Hebrew leader Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (Judges 11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.

During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-eleventh until the mid-tenth centuries B.C., Moab and Israel were at war, with Israel usually holding the upper hand (1 Samuel 14:47; 2 Samuel 8:2). Solomon, David’s son and succeeding king, included Moabite women in his harem. He also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kings 11:1, 7). After the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 BC, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century BC (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several other shorter texts, demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to Old Testament Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (for example, Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century BC (Ezekiel 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian property in the late eighth century B.C., and in the Old Testament (2 Kings 3). Indeed, the hostility between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites by the prophets Isaiah (Isaiah 15-16), Jeremiah (Jeremiah 9:25-26), Amos (Amos 2:1-3) and Zephaniah (Zephaniah 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).

After the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late Old Testament times (Ezra 9:1; Nehemiah 13:1, 23), because the Jewish community that settled after the exile was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6, which limited Moabite participation in Jewish worship. In A.D. 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture.

RELIGION

During the third and second millennia B.C., Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a more distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The Old Testament refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Jeremiah 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.

Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Numbers 22-24). A priesthood (Jeremiah 48:7) and sacrificial system (Jeremiah 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the Old Testament (1 Kings 11:7). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.

MOAB, MOABITES

Moab was a small kingdom on a high plateau immediately east of the Dead Sea, an area that was once called Transjordan. Moabites were the people who settled and inhabited this kingdom. The sharp slope of the Jordan Rift formed an effective boundary between Moab and Judah. Moab’s northern boundary shifted in proportion to the kingdom’s military might. The outer Heshbon vicinity formed the northern limit of Moab in periods of strength, and the more central Arnon River (modern Wadi el-Mojib) functioned as the northern border in times of weakness. The kingdom’s eastern boundary was formed by the fringe of the Syrian desert, which demarcated Moab’s agricultural zone. On the south, Moab was separated from Edom by the Zered River (modern Wadi el-Hesa). Thus, even at its peak, ancient Moab encompassed a relatively small territory, measuring only about 60 miles (96.5 kilometers) north-south by about 20 miles (32.2 kilometers) east-west.

Most of Moab is gently rolling land divided by numerous ravines. Running through the heart of Moab is the King’s Highway, a route that probably had military and commercial importance throughout this region’s history (Numbers 21:21-22; Judges 11:17). The plateau has always been famous for its abundant pastureland (2 Kings 3:4), and Moab’s soil and climate are quite suitable for growing wheat and barley.

ORIGIN AND HISTORY

According to Genesis 19:37, the Moabites descended from Moab, the son of Lot and his oldest daughter (Genesis 19:34-37). Deuteronomy 2:10-11, a passage whose context relates to the Moabites at the time of the Hebrew invasion, says that the pre-Moabite inhabitants of this region were the Emim, but the connection between Lot’s descendants, the Emim, and the occupants of Moab at the time of the Hebrew invasion is not clear. The Moabite kingdom proper existed from around 1300 B.C. to 600 B.C., but little information is available about its beginnings. Any knowledge of Moabite history and culture is derived from archaeological and textual sources, including Egyptian, Assyrian, and Old Testament texts.

Prior to the Israelites’ passage through Transjordan, the Moabites had lost control of the land north of the Arnon and were dominated by Sihon, the Amorite king who ruled at Heshbon (Numbers 21:13, 26). Having been refused permission to travel through Edom and Moab along the King’s Highway, the Hebrews defeated Sihon in one of their most celebrated military campaigns. Fearing that Israel might conquer his land, King Balak of Moab waged war against the Hebrews (Joshua 24:9) and hired the Mesopotamian diviner, Balaam, to pronounce a curse upon his Hebrew enemies (Numbers 22-24). The tribes of Reuben and Gad settled in Sihon’s territory, and the Arnon formed the border between Israel and Moab (Numbers 32). At one point (Numbers 25) the Hebrews joined with the Moabites in Shittim (also called Acacia) in their celebration and idol worship. From that time onward, the Moabite tableland north of the Arnon was a source of contention between Moab and Israel.

Until his assassination by Ehud, the Moabite king Eglon oppressed the Hebrew tribes on both sides of the Jordan (Judges 3:12-30). By the Hebrew leader Jephthah’s day, northern Moab was once again under Israelite control (Judges 11:26). Obviously, as the book of Ruth indicates, there were also periods in which Moab and Israel lived in peace.

During the reigns of Saul and David, from the late-eleventh until the mid-tenth centuries B.C., Moab and Israel were at war, with Israel usually holding the upper hand (1 Samuel 14:47; 2 Samuel 8:2). Solomon, David’s son and succeeding king, included Moabite women in his harem. He also built a high place for Chemosh, the chief god of the Moabites (1 Kings 11:1, 7). After the division of the Israelite monarchy in 930 BC, Moab experienced a brief period of independence, but this ended when Omri and Ahab dominated the Moabites and their king, Mesha, during the ninth century BC (The famous Moabite Stone, which describes Mesha’s conflict with the Omride dynasty, and several other shorter texts, demonstrate that the language of Moab was closely related to Old Testament Hebrew.) Conflict between Moab and her neighbors (for example, Israel, Judah, Edom, and most importantly, Assyria) continued until the Babylonian king Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the Moabite kingdom early in the sixth century BC (Ezekiel 25:8-11). This conflict is documented in the Assyrian literature, which indicates that Moab became an Assyrian property in the late eighth century B.C., and in the Old Testament (2 Kings 3). Indeed, the hostility between Moab, Israel, and Judah is especially evident in a series of prophetic oracles leveled against the Moabites by the prophets Isaiah (Isaiah 15-16), Jeremiah (Jeremiah 9:25-26), Amos (Amos 2:1-3) and Zephaniah (Zephaniah 2:8-11). These passages call attention to some of the major towns in ancient Moab (Nebo, Medeba, Heshbon, Dibon, Ar, Kir, and Horonaim).

After the Babylonian conquest, the region of Moab fell under Persian control and was occupied by various Arab peoples, most notably the Nabateans. Although a Moabite state was never reestablished, people of Moabite ancestry were recognized in late Old Testament times (Ezra 9:1; Nehemiah 13:1, 23), because the Jewish community that settled after the exile was concerned about observing the law recorded in Deuteronomy 23:3-6, which limited Moabite participation in Jewish worship. In A.D. 106 the region of Moab became part of the Roman province of Arabia. Archaeological research has added much to the body of information that relates to Moabite history and culture.

RELIGION

During the third and second millennia B.C., Moabite religion was probably similar to that practiced by the Canaanites, though the religion of Moab eventually developed into a more distinct system. Although other deities were worshiped by the Moabites, Chemosh was their national god. The Old Testament refers to the Moabites as “people of Chemosh” (Jeremiah 48:46), and the frequent appearance of “Chemosh” in Moabite personal names points to this god’s elevated status. In general, the Moabite Stone’s dozen references to Chemosh portray him as a god of war who leads his people against their enemies.

Divine guidance and favor were sought, and diviners and oracles were respected (Numbers 22-24). A priesthood (Jeremiah 48:7) and sacrificial system (Jeremiah 48:35) were important aspects of Moabite religion. No Moabite sanctuary has been discovered, but their existence is mentioned in the Moabite Stone and the Old Testament (1 Kings 11:7). Elaborately furnished tombs, like those found at Dibon, point to the Moabites’ belief in the afterlife.

BOAZ (PERSON)

Boaz was Salmon’s son of the tribe of Judah (Ruth 4:18-22). Boaz lived in Bethlehem in the days of the judges and married Ruth, a Moabite woman. Boaz was an ancestor of Christ (Matthew 1:5; Luke 3:32) and a wealthy relative by marriage of Ruth’s mother-in-law, Naomi. Ruth attracted the attention of Boaz when she was gleaning in one of his fields (Ruth 2). His kindness to Ruth convinced Naomi that Boaz might be willing to redeem some land her husband had owned and at the same time accept the levirate marriage with Ruth that such a transaction required.

DAVID

OVERVIEW

David was Israel's most important king. As a boy he was chosen by God to become king of Israel. But first he became the harp player for the first king. Later he defeated a giant (Goliath) in battle with a slingshot and faith. As a man, he ruled Israel and led his soldiers to conquer many regions. David also wrote dozens of poems, called psalms, about his faith in God. By following God, David helped Israel grow strong as a nation. But when he made mistakes, they were big ones. Some of his mistakes caused his family to suffer. Yet through them he learned about God's forgiveness.

FAMILY BACKGROUND

We don't know the name of David's mother, but we know that David was the youngest son of Jesse of the family line of Judah. His great-grandparents were Ruth and Boaz, whom we read about in the book of Ruth. David was born in Bethlehem, like Jesus, and the Bible names him as an important ancestor of Jesus.

CHILDHOOD AND YOUNG ADULTHOOD

We first read about David in 1 Samuel 16:1. As a young boy, he was a shepherd who tended his father's sheep quite fearlessly. David would club to death any animals that threatened the sheep, even lions and bears. He believed that he had divine protection when he fought these animals (1 Samuel 17:34-37).

GOD'S ANOINTED

The prophet Samuel was asked by God to anoint a new king. Saul was the current king, but he had displeased God. So God sent Samuel to the home of Jesse, and there Samuel checked out all of Jesse's handsome and grown sons. But to his surprise, God did not want any of them to lead Israel. Instead, God had chosen the boy, David, Jesse's youngest son (1 Samuel 16:1-13). The prophet Samuel anointed David with oil, and from that point on he was mightily filled with the Spirit of God.

Even though he was anointed king, however, David did not become king for many years. But God was preparing him. David was a good harp player, and harp music was very soothing. After the Spirit of God left King Saul, he began to have periods of mental anguish, depression, and fear. His servants decided that harp music might help him during these times when he was feeling tormented. So, as part of God's plan, David was brought to the royal court of King Saul to work as armor bearer and play the harp. There David learned about being king. Not only did God choose David, but he made sure David had experience in the royal court.

GOLIATH'S KILLER

While still a boy, David made a name for himself. The Israelite army was camped opposite the army of the Philistines. The two armies were at a standoff. Neither wanted to do battle, but both wanted to win. So the Philistines sent out their secret weapon: the giant Goliath. Goliath challenged the Israelites to a battle of champions. Whoever was brave enough would fight Goliath alone, and whoever won that fight won the battle for his army.

Goliath marched up and down in front of the Israelites each day for forty days but no one wanted to volunteer to fight him. King Saul even offered his oldest daughter in marriage and life without taxes to the man who would fight! David was amazed, but he was even more indignant. It made him angry to think that a pagan giant could challenge God's people. David knew that God would give victory to anyone who would fight Goliath with God's help. So that's what David did.

David killed Goliath with a rock from his slingshot (1 Samuel 17:12-58). Once Goliath was dead, the Philistine army turned and ran. The Israelite army chased them and killed many of the soldiers. It was a great victory for the Israelites. But it caused some problems for David. King Saul heard the crowds cheering David with these words: "Saul has killed his thousands, and David his ten thousands." Imagine being king and being told that a boy was a greater warrior than you. It made Saul very jealous, and when Saul was mentally tormented he would try to kill David. Unfortunately, a harp doesn't work well as a shield against spears.

JONATHAN'S FRIEND

Yet just as David was losing Saul's affection, he gained the affection of Saul's son, Jonathan. Jonathan became one of David's best friends. More than once Jonathan saved David's life when Saul was out to murder him. Clearly Jonathan knew that David was God's choice to be the next king even though normally he, the son of the king, would have gained the throne from his father.

David also allied himself with Saul's daughter. Remember the reward Saul had promised to the man who killed Goliath? Saul did not keep his promise to let David marry his oldest daughter. But when David asked for the hand of Michal, a younger daughter, Saul consented-as long as David carried out an outrageous request. Saul wanted David to single-handedly kill a hundred Philistines. Saul was hoping that David would die trying to do this. Instead, David killed two hundred Philisines (1 Samuel 18:6-30).

David married Michal, and she also saved David from her father's murderous intentions. But only God could truly save David and make him king.

SAUL'S TARGET

Fearing for his life, David went to see the prophet Samuel and to go with him to Naioth. While David was there, Saul made several attempts to capture him, even going to do the job himself when his soldiers failed. But the Spirit of God caused the men and the king to prophesy all night (1 Samuel 19) rather than carry out their plan.

After discussing the situation with Jonathan, David realized that the king truly wanted him dead. He was not just dealing with jealousy anymore but with hatred. Jonathan promised to help David if David would protect Jonathan and his descendants when David became king (1 Samuel 20).

Next David fled to Nob. David told the priest Ahimelech that he was there on the king's business, and so David obtained food (the day-old Bread of the Presence) for his men and Goliath's sword as a weapon. But while David was there getting these supplies, he was seen by an Edomite, Doeg, who went straight to King Saul with this information. Furious, Saul massacred Ahimelech and eighty-four other priests and all of the inhabitants of Nob.

Meanwhile, David took refuge in Gath (1 Samuel 21), a country under a different king, and then in a cave outside of Bethlehem. In Bethlehem David's family and about four hundred fighting men joined him. Traveling to Mizpah in the country of Moab, David appealed to the Moabite king for protection for his parents. However, the prophet Gad warned David that he could not stay in Moab and so he fled back to Judah with his men (1 Samuel 22:6-23).

While David fled from Saul, the Philistines continued to attack Israel at various points. David found himself in the position of defending Israel while Israel's king tried to kill him. After David, at God's command, saved the walled city of Keilah from the Philistines, he had to flee to the wilderness area of Ziph or else be trapped in the walled city by Saul. In Ziph, David and Jonathan met for the last time. When Saul besieged David in the wilderness near Maon, Saul had to leave to push back another Philistine attack (1 Samuel 23).

Next David fled to En-gedi on the western shore of the Dead Sea. Saul and his men followed him there and again attacked. This time David had an opportunity to kill Saul but he did not. Hearing that David has spared his life, Saul briefly repented of his desire to kill David (1 Samuel 24).

David continued to roam the wilderness in the Maon, Ziph, En-gedi area with his men. At one point he protected Nabal, a rich man living at Carmel. When David asked for payment, however, Nabal refused. Nabal's wife, Abigail, realized that Nabal made a bad decision. She begged David to be patient and then she made it clear to Nabal what a risky situation he was in. Finally grasping the truth, Nabal died of a heart attack. Abigail later married David.

Once more in the Ziph desert, Saul attacked David and David spared his life again. Finally, Saul stopped chasing David. Yet David did not feel safe in Israel and took refuge in Gath under King Achish. He and his men lived in the city of Ziklag, where new recruits from Judah and the rest of Israel joined them.

Saul, though he had given up pursuing David, was still doing battle with the Philistines. When the Philistines marched up the Megiddo Valley to fight Saul, David's men marched with King Achish and the Philistines. But King Achish was the only Philistine who trusted David. The others were afraid of him, even though David had been fighting Saul for years. Because of the other Philistines, King Achish had to send David back to Ziklag, where David found that the Amalekites had burned the city and carried off the people as hostages. By being kind to an Amalekite slave who had been left for dead in the desert, David learned what he needed to know and he surprised the Amalekites while they celebrated their victory. Every hostage was returned unharmed, along with their belongings and plunder from the Amalekites. David shared these spoils of war with all the soldiers, not just those who went into battle with him, and his followers in Judah.

While David was rescuing his people, Saul was meeting the Philistines in battle. Even though he knew that consulting mediums was not acceptable to God, Saul consulted the medium at Endor. Through the medium, the spirit of Samuel predicted Saul's utter demise in battle the next day.

The next day in battle, Saul's army was routed by the Philistines and his three sons, including Jonathan, were killed. Severely wounded and hopeless, Saul killed himself. The book of 1 Samuel ends with his burial.

HUSBAND AND FATHER

David had at least eight wives and several children. It seems clear that many of his marriages were made to form alliances with kings around him. The following wives gave birth to sons for David in Hebron.

1. Michal, his first wife, was left behind with Saul when David fled. After being forced to marry another man, Michal returned to David when David became king. Michal was apparently childless, though older translations mistakenly assigned her sister's children to her.

2. Ahinoam of Jezreel was the mother of Amnon, the firstborn.

3. Abigail, the widow of Nabal, gave birth to Kileab.

4. Maacah, the daughter of the king of Geshur, was the mother of Absalom.

5. Haggith gave birth to Adonijah.

6. Abital brought Shephatiah into the world.

7. Eglah gave birth to Ithream.

David had more sons, who were born in Jerusalem. David had a son from his illicit affair with Bathsheba, but the baby died. Solomon was born after David and Bathsheba married.

DAVID THE KING

At first David was only crowned king in Judah, the southern section of Israel. But his popularity grew quickly. During his wanderings as a fugitive from Saul, he had become acquainted with many of the large landholders and some of them owed him favors because of the protection he had provided them. He also was known to the leaders of Philistia and Moab and had lived for a time in each country. His familiarity allowed him to negotiate with these leaders.

KING IN HEBRON

When David heard of the death of Saul and Jonathan, he wrote a beautiful tribute to them that appears in 2 Samuel 1. From Philistia he returned to Israel and at Hebron was anointed king by the leaders of Judah. David immediately commended those who had given Saul a respectable burial, perhaps hoping that they would lend support to David.

Among the other tribes, chaos reigned. The Philistines still held much territory, and the various Hebrew leaders could not decide who should be king. Some of the Hebrew tribes gave their allegiance to Saul's son, Ishbosheth. Saul's general, Abner, had Ishbosheth crowned king. The result was a civil war between those tribes that supported Ishbosheth and those that supported David. But David grew stronger and stronger while Ishbosheth grew weaker. Eventually, when Ishbosheth enraged Abner, Abner swore that he would see David rule instead. Abner then set out to negotiate a settlement that would allow David to rule all of Israel as God's anointed.

David requested that Michal, his wife and Saul's daughter, be restored to him. This showed the people that David still respected Saul's family. Ishbosheth agreed to this, and Abner went to Hebron to pledge the allegiance to David of Ishbosheth's supporters. While Abner was there, however, he was killed by Joab, one of David's captains. To show that he did not support such vengeance, David mourned Abner and executed his murderers.

Shortly after that, two men seeking David's favor stabbed Ishbosheth to death in his bed. David, far from rewarding such cowardly behavior, executed the men for their deed. He had Ishbosheth buried with Abner, and David became the only king in Israel, supported by all the tribal families. Altogether, David reigned forty years-seven years over Judah and another thirty-three years over all of Israel.

KING IN JERUSALEM

With a new center of government, David began organizing the whole nation. He made alliances with the Phoenicians so that he could obtain building supplies for a new palace. He also began arrangements for moving the ark of the covenant. Trying to move it by cart, however, was a mistake. A man died because the ark was not carried the way God had intended. Even the king had to do things God's way.

With his strength growing, David attempted to make plans for building a temple in Jerusalem for the ark. But Nathan the prophet was told by God that David's son, not David, would build the temple. For now God's ark was to remain in temporary quarters-a symbol that God cannot be "housed."

CONQUEROR OF ISRAEL'S ENEMIES

By about 1000 BC David's armies had extended his rule west to the Nile River and east to the Tigris-Euphrates valley. His was a very powerful kingdom, blessed by God. Even the Philistines were eventually subdued, and the nation of Israel made use of the Philistines' skill of working with iron. David also extended the kingdom southward, into the territory of the Edomites, Moabites, and Amalekites. To the north he ruled the Ammonites and the Arameans (Syrians). While conquering peoples, David treated them justly and glorified God for his victories.

DAVID THE MAN

While David could run a country and conquer nations, his own household was riddled with problems. Second Samuel 11-20 describes the intrigue in the royal court, David's failings, and the consequences he faced as a result.

POLYGAMY AND ADULTERY

The Old Testament law clearly prohibited a leader of Israel from having more than one wife, but David had several. Some of these were obviously marriages of political fortune, such as his marriage to the daughter of the king of Geshur. But others were marriages for pleasure. Much text is spent on David's adultery.

His sin with Bathsheba, the wife of one of David's military commanders, was committed during the height of David's power and the expansion of his kingdom. After making Bathsheba pregnant, David schemed to hide the pregnancy and then to have the husband killed so that he could marry the woman. This great man of godly good sense lost it when he saw the beautiful Bathsheba. The prophet Nathan had to confront David with his sins. Overcome with guilt, David confessed his sins and asked forgiveness. Two psalms, Psalm 32 and Psalm 51, were written about this sin and include David's confession and rejoicing over forgiveness. Yet despite his forgiveness he continued to suffer the consequences of his lifestyle.

WAYWARD CHILDREN

David must have indulged his children. And the results were soon evident. Amnon committed incest. Absalom murdered his brother and then fled to Geshur, the home of his mother's family. He stayed there for three years until David's general, Joab, convinced David to reconcile with Absalom. But Absalom was not finished wreaking havoc in his father's kingdom. Once allowed back in, Absalom went to Hebron, gathered a following, and declared himself king. David, undoubtedly very surprised by this move, fled from Jerusalem and bought some time to regroup. Then he planned some trickery of his own to regain full control of his kingdom. Absalom's forces were routed, but Absalom was killed as he fled. Despite Absalom's treachery, David's grief was great.

Absalom's rebellion had far-reaching effects in that it showed how vulnerable the king was. He had to win back Absalom's supporters and suppress other rebellions before peace was again established.

FINAL ACTS

Because of his great desire to see a temple built in Jerusalem, in the later years David made preparations for the construction. He gathered materials and organized the kingdom for efficient use of foreign materials and labor. He even outlined how worship should proceed in the new structure.

David's army was also well-established before his death. Probably using an Egyptian model for both civil and military government, David gave great power to those who were faithful to him, thus rewarding their loyalty. There were even loyal supervisors to oversee orchards, livestock, and farms in parts of the nation.

David began a census of Israel, but this may have been a selfish plan. David later recognized that the census was not in God's plan and was thus a sin. In repenting of this sin, David and the elders had a vision of an angel on the threshing floor outside of Jerusalem. Taking this as a sign, David designated this as the proper site for the temple when it was built.

DAVID'S LASTING INFLUENCE

In addition to being the king of a nation that greatly expanded its influence, David has also influenced believers in the centuries since his death through his writings.

WRITER OF PSALMS

The psalms quickly became one of the most popular books of the Old Testament in ancient Israel, and its popularity continues with believers up to the present. How many people even today memorized a psalm as a child? David's psalms are great hymns of praise to God that anyone can use to praise the Lord. But they also put into words some of the most agonizing difficulties that believers face. The psalms have inspired poets and writers throughout time, and they continue today to be among the most translated portions of Scripture.

David wrote about seventy-three of the psalms in the book by that name, and the rest were collected by him and his son or added later. These were set to music to be used in worship in the temple when it was built. David's work, in fact, set the tone for Israelite worship for many generations.

LEADER OF GOD'S PEOPLE

Old Testament prophets uphold David as an example of strong and faithful leadership. The coming Messiah is compared to David and is said to be from the lineage of David. Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Amos, and Zechariah all associate David with the eternal kingdom and the rule of God.

In the New Testament, David is described as the ancestor of the Messiah and a recipient of God's promises. Jesus is called the "son of David," the "key of David" and the "root of David." Clearly David has a large place in history.

MESSIAH

Messiah is a title for Jesus Christ, the Savior of the world. In the Old Testament, God told how he would send the Messiah to rescue his people, to make everything right, and to destroy evil. The Jews looked forward to the arrival of this Jewish hero but rejected Jesus Christ because they expected someone different. Instead of a soldier, Jesus was a servant. Instead of being a mighty king, Jesus died on a cross. The Jews did not recognize God's plan for Jesus as the Messiah, but Jesus still saved those who believed in him by his death on the cross. He came back from the dead and now rules in heaven above.

THE MEANING OF MESSIAH

The title of Messiah came from the Hebrew, mashiach, and means "anointed one." Christos, or Christ, refers to an individual who is set apart to serve God. This person would be anointed with oil-a common practice that involved pouring oil over a person's head. Priests were regularly anointed with oil as a symbol of their right to serve at God's altar (Leviticus 4:3). Samuel anointed Saul and David to signify their selection as king. All Hebrew kings were then anointed before assuming their positions of royal leadership. The kings were considered to be the Lord's special leaders (1 Samuel 12:14; 2 Samuel 19:21).

These ceremonies introduced the idea of a Messiah-a special person set apart in God's service. Several prophecies also described a specific Messiah, which helped to fuel people's anticipation of the ultimate Anointed One. A statement still found in many Hebrew prayer books is this: "I believe with a perfect heart that the Messiah will come; and although his coming be delayed, I will still wait patiently for his speedy appearance." Although we believe that the Messiah has already come to earth in the person of Jesus Christ, we should also eagerly look forward to his second appearance. We, too, should be patient and eager for his arrival-this time as King of kings.

MESSIAH IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

Prophets foretold that David's kingdom would endure to the end of time (2 Samuel 7:16); David's descendants would enjoy a never-ending reign on the earth (22:48-51; Jeremiah 33). This idea of an ongoing political reign is the one that most Jews hold with regard to the Messiah (compare with Acts 1:6).

However, Orthodox rabbis have traditionally disagreed about the Messiah's ministry. At one time, the rabbis applied no less than 456 passages of Scripture to his person and salvation. Their writings show their preoccupation with the Messiah. A particular writing called, Sanhedrin (Babylonian Talmud), states that the world was created for the Messiah, and that all the prophets prophesied of his days. By and large, however, Orthodox Jews still retain a timeworn belief in the Messiah's physical reign in Jerusalem, the rebuilding of the temple, and the re-establishment of the priests and the offerings and sacrifices. They believe these signs will accompany the Messiah.

Later Judaism described the Messiah as someone who will reign at the end of time. In fact, modern Jewish thought has largely traded the traditional notion of a literal or personal Messiah for a messianic age that will come at the end of time. Popular liberal Judaism believes the world ultimately will be perfected through the influence of Jewish ideals like justice and compassion. Of course, this conviction puts too much stock in humanity's ability to save itself, and it lacks scriptural support. The Bible teaches about our need for God's grace in spite of our good intentions. Compassion is a powerful principle, but it will never bring anyone salvation. Justice is sorely needed in our world, but only God could establish infinite justice through Jesus' death-the ultimate sacrifice for sins.

While the Messiah's origin was linked firmly to the house of David (2 Samuel 7:14; Hosea 3:5), the promise of a Messiah was given long before David lived. In fact, the hope for the Messiah was mentioned at the very beginning of the world. Addressed to Satan, Genesis 3:15 declares that God will place hostility between the serpent and the woman until, in the fullness of time, the "seed" of the woman inflicts a fatal blow to the head of the serpent. Who is this seed-child who will destroy Satan's power? The Messiah himself.

THE MESSIAH IN PROPHECY

Each prophecy in the Bible casts more light on the subject of the Messiah. Consider the following prophecies:

1. Messiah is to be born of a woman (Genesis 3:15)

2. through the line of Shem (Genesis 9:26) and specifically through Abraham (22:18).

3. Yet even as late as Genesis 22:18, the "seed" is not clearly presented as a person, since zerah (seed) may indicate a singular or plural object. Still less apparent in these early stages of messianic prophecy is the nature of the "bruising" that is to occur. Yet the idea of the Messiah being crushed for sin is undoubtedly expressed in Genesis, as is the violence associated with that act.

4. Chief among the messianic prophets, Isaiah gives full range to the emerging idea that the Anointed One must endure extensive suffering (Isaiah 53:1). Under the figure "the Servant of the Lord," four "servant songs" delineate the mission of the future deliverer (42:1-7; 49:1-9; 50:4-11; 52:13-53:12). While it is true that Isaiah does not explicitly link the title Messiah with the Servant of the Lord, it is a reasonable conclusion based on the evidence:

5. Both figures are uniquely anointed (Isaiah 61:1); each brings light to the Gentiles (55:4; compare with 49:6); neither is pretentious in his first appearance (7:14-15; 11:1; compare with 42:3; 53:1); and the title of Davidic "branch" rests upon them both (11:1-4). Equally significant are the common traits of humility and honor (49:7; 52:13-15).

6. Jewish scholars who study the early Christian era in the Aramaic Targum paraphrase Isaiah 42:1, "Behold my Servant Messiah" and begin Isaiah 53, "Behold my Servant Messiah will prosper." While a ruler like Cyrus may be spoken of as "anointed," he does not play a role in salvation (45:1-5). Israel, although chosen and loved by God (41:8), is ill-equipped to be the Messiah (42:18). The collapse of David's dynasty points to Israel's need for healing from their disobedience (Exodus 33:5; Hosea 4:1).

The Old Testament's history presents Israel's comprehensive moral failure as a portrait of our own lives. Israel's problem is our own problem. Making a covenant or personal promise with a Savior and sovereign Lord is Israel's only hope (Jeremiah 31:31-34). The Messiah's arrival into the history of humanity is recorded in the strange promise of a shoot from the stump of Jesse's fallen tree (Isaiah 9:2; 11:1). This prophetic language is another way of describing the Messiah's family line-all the way from David's father, Jesse, to Christ himself.

THE MESSIAH AS A SUFFERING SERVANT

Scripture brings together seemingly unrelated ideas like servanthood and lowliness with royalty (Zechariah 9:9). Jews had no problem accepting the Messiah's roles of priest and king (Psalm 110:1-4). However, a suffering priest-king is far less obvious and far less palatable. Some among the Talmudic writers apparently recognized the likelihood that the Messiah would have to suffer. In the Babylonian Talmud, the Messiah is said to bear sicknesses and pain. Among the prayers for the Day of Atonement are the words of Eleazar ben Qalir (from perhaps as late as AD 1000): "Our righteous Messiah has departed from us; we are horror-stricken, and there is none to justify us. Our iniquities and the yoke of our transgressions he carries, and is wounded for our transgressions. He bears on his shoulders our sins to find pardon for our iniquities. May we be healed by his stripes." In a similar vein, Rabbi Eliyya de Vidas writes, "The meaning of 'He was wounded for our transgressions, bruised for our iniquities,' is that since the Messiah bears our iniquities, which produce the effect of His being bruised, it follows that whosoever will not admit that the Messiah thus suffers for our iniquities must endure and suffer for them himself."

However, no one would have imagined that the Messiah would accomplish his work of salvation through his own death (compare to Isaiah 53:12). Rabbis were unsuccessful in trying to tie together the idea of humiliation and exaltation to their own satisfaction. As a result, some rabbis hypothesized that God would send a Messiah to suffer as well as a Messiah to reign. However, Scripture teaches that the Messiah's terrible suffering is a necessary step toward infinite glory. He is pictured not only as a great king (52:13; 53:12) but also as humble (53:2), humiliated (52:14), and rejected (53:3). He bears the consequences of mankind's rebellion (53:5-6). Yet he is raised up to intercede for, and richly bless, his people (53:12). The Messiah, having accomplished the full obedience that Adam and Israel failed to achieve, will bring Israel and the nations back to God (42:18-19; 49:3, 6).

THE WORK OF THE MESSIAH

The book of Daniel is unique in that it boldly speaks of "Messiah the Prince" (Daniel 9:25), identifies him as the "Son of Man" (7:13), and says he suffers (9:26). The "cutting off" or death of the Messiah is his work of atonement (9:24). He acts as a substitute for sinful humanity and pays the penalty for their sin. This principle is called the doctrine of substitutionary atonement, and it is the only doctrine of atonement found in the Bible (compare to Leviticus 17:11). Israel understood that the Messiah would live a sinless life. Despite his innocence, he would endure the consequences, or penalty, for sin (compare to Numbers 14:33) for the entire world. Although we deserved sin and death for our sin (Romans 6:23), Jesus Christ, the Messiah, paid the penalty by his death on the cross. We escaped certain death and eternal separation from God because of his willingness to love us and bring us back to God.

Psalm 22:1 records the plaintive cry of the Messiah as he not only bears the penalty for the world's sin (compare to Matthew 27:46), but he becomes sin on behalf of his people (2 Corinthians 5:21). His cry, "My God," indicates an intimate relationship between a Father and a Son that cannot be broken. Once again, we see the Messiah humiliated on the cross prior to his resurrection (Psalm 22:27). In the so-called "royal psalms" (2; 72; 110), the Messiah is a priestly intercessor who is also ordained to function as monarch and judge. Jeremiah takes the idea a step further: The Messiah, God's righteous branch, becomes "the Lord our Righteousness." Under the law, no one could be crucified who was not guilty of sin (Deuteronomy 21:22). However, Christ made a scandal of the law because he was the most righteous One who ever lived (Deuteronomy 21:23; Galatians 3:13). More than forgiven, believers are now deemed righteous in him (Jeremiah 23:5-6).

While the birthplace of the Messiah was well established (Micah 5:2), the fact that he was indeed God was hotly contested. Although few in ancient Israel disputed the belief in a superhuman Messiah, who would have guessed that the Messiah would be "God with us" in the fullest sense of the expression (compare to Hebrews 1:3)? However, this is the major distinction of Christianity. In other world religions, humanity is reaching toward God through penance and ritual. God remains an elusive higher being. In Christianity, however, God initiates a personal relationship with humanity-coming to us in the form of Jesus Christ, His Son.

MESSIAH IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

The New Testament writers show how Jesus fulfilled the prophecies that the Messiah would be the child of supernatural origins (Isaiah 7:14; Micah 5:2). He would be God himself (Isaiah 9:6; Philippians 2:6; Colossians 1:19). Therefore, the Son of God was worthy to receive the worship of all people (Psalm 45:6-7; compare to Hebrews 1:8-9).

The Jews of first-century Palestine knew that the messianic promise would be fulfilled in the coming of one like Moses (Deuteronomy 18:18). In fact, Jesus and Moses have a lot in common. Both served as mediators between God and his people and each marked the beginning of new phases of spiritual life. Consider the following similarities:

1. Both are miraculously spared in infancy (Exodus 2 ; Matthew 2:13-23)

2. Both renounce a royal court for the sake of serving the people of God (Philippians 2:5-8; Hebrews 11:24-28)

3. Both exhibit intense compassion for others (Numbers 27:17; Matthew 9:36)

4. Both commune "face to face" with God (Exodus 34:29-30; 2 Corinthians 3:7)

5. Each mediates a covenant of redemption (Deuteronomy 29:1; Hebrews 8:6-7)

Despite their similarities, as Martin Luther observes, "Christ is no Moses." Moses is but a household servant; the Messiah is the Maker and Master of all things (Hebrews 3:3-6; compare to John 1:1-2, 18).

THE MESSIAH'S GENEALOGY

Family genealogy is important in Scripture. Rabbis agreed upon the absolute necessity that the Messiah come from the line of David based on Hosea 3:5 and Jeremiah 30:9. The angel is quick to announce the correct lineage for Jesus (Luke 1:32-33; compare to 2:4; Matthew 1:1-17). In Luke, like Matthew, the genealogy defines the exclusive, kingly descent of Jesus, proving he is the Messiah (Luke 3:23-38). Although variations occur between the two genealogies, there is enough common ground to validate Jesus' ancestry within the unique messianic stock.

JESUS AS THE MESSIAH

Jesus brought attention to the messianic focus of Scripture (John 5:46; 8:56). To make his point, Jesus acknowledged himself to be the Christ on numerous occasions. He accepted the title from blind Bartimaeus (Mark 10:46-48), from the crowds when he entered Jerusalem (Matthew 21:9), from the children at the temple (21:15), and in other contexts as well (16:16-18; Mark 14:61-62; Luke 4:21; John 4:25-26). Nonetheless, he warned his disciples not to broadcast his mighty acts as Messiah prior to his resurrection (Matthew 17:9; compare to Luke 9:20-21).

Jesus realized most Jews falsely believed the Messiah's role was that of a political liberator. As a result, Jesus actually avoided use of that term and preferred to identify himself as "the Son of Man." It was by no means assumed that both designations referred to the same person (compare to Mark 14:61-62). Borrowing essentially from Daniel's vision of a heavenly conqueror (Daniel 7:13-14), Jesus consistently used this less familiar title and worked to fill it with the true character and mission of the Messiah. Jesus' teaching in this regard enabled his disciples to reject their preconceived notions of what the Messiah would do (Matthew 16:21-23).

In the fullness of time, the disciples would realize he was not only the Messiah but also the very theme of the entire Old Testament (Matthew 5:17; Luke 24:27, Matthew 44:1; John 5:39; compare to Hebrews 10:7). When we study God's Word, God reveals how Jesus Christ's person, nature, and ministry is connected throughout the Old and New Testaments. God did not design the testaments as plan A and plan B. Everything that is recorded in the Bible somehow points to Jesus Christ's role in salvation.

Jesus expounded the Scriptures beginning with the Torah-the first five books of the Bible (Luke 24:27). However, he did so as the living God himself! He was, after all, the Word made flesh (John 1:14, 18). Consider some of the following messianic references and explanations:

1. Psalm 2; 16; 22; 40; 110

2. Isaiah 7:14; 9:6; 11:1; 40:10-11; 50:6; Isaiah 52:13-53:12; 61:1; 63:1-6

3. Jeremiah 23:5-6; 33:14-16

4. Ezekiel 34:23; 37:25

5. Daniel 9:24-27

6. Hosea 11:1

7. Micah 5:2

8. Zechariah 9:9; 11:13; 12:10; 13:7

9. Malachi 3:1; Malachi 4:2.

All four authors of the gospels-Matthew, Mark, Luke and John-write their conviction that Jesus was indeed the Messiah (Matthew 1:1; Mark 1:1; Luke 24:26; John 20:31). Additional evidence is provided by: Peter at Pentecost, Philip before the Ethiopian eunuch, and Apollos in open debate. All of these preachers argue convincingly that Jesus is the Messiah (Acts 2:36; 8:35; 28:28). Peter says he was "made" both Lord and Christ (2:36), pointing to his resurrection as proof.

Similarly, the apostle Paul speaks of Jesus' resurrection as a patent declaration of his inalienable right to the title (Romans 1:4). Who else in history, before or since, has made such a claim? For an ex-Pharisee and former persecutor of the church, referencing "Jesus the Christ" is no small matter. Yet it is the very heart and soul of Paul's preaching. Nothing is comparable to the glory of the Messiah; everything pales by comparison (Philippians 3:5-10).

The Bible calls Jesus the Holy One, Judge, Righteous One, King, Son of God, and Lord, but even this list is incomplete. From cover to cover, the Lord Jesus Christ is the heart and substance of the covenant through which sinful people may be reconciled to a holy God (Isaiah 42:6; John 14:6). This is why the gospel is called "the good news." Jesus is the Messiah of Israel, God incarnate. Therefore, all should trust in him, the source of all grace, the only abiding treasure (Matthew 12:21; John 1:16-17; Colossians 2:3). Anointed as prophet, he leads us into all truth (John 6:14; John 7:16); as priest he intercedes for us (Hebrews 7:21); and as king he reigns over us (Philippians 2:9-10). The blessed Messiah has come in the person of Jesus Christ.

RAHAB (PERSON)

Rahab was the heroine of the battle of Jericho (Joshua 2-6). Soon after Moses’ death, God told Joshua that he and the people were to cross the Jordan and occupy the Promised Land. Before the crossing, however, Joshua sent two spies into the land to scout out the opposition, in particular the fortified city of Jericho. Upon entering the city, the spies quickly found their way to Rahab’s house, which was perhaps an inn and/or a brothel. Apparently she was a prostitute.

News of the spies’ arrival was not long in reaching the king of Jericho, who demanded that Rahab divulge their whereabouts. She cleverly admitted seeing them but insisted that they had left the city at nightfall. Actually, the spies were hiding under the stalks of flax on the roof of her house. When the king’s search party left Jericho to hunt the spies, Rahab confessed to the spies the reason for her sympathy for the Israelites’ cause. She feared the God of the Jews, believing that he would surely give them victory (Joshua 2:11).

In return for her help, the spies agreed to save Rahab and her family. The sign was to be a cord of scarlet thread hanging from her window. The spies used this cord to escape the city. Rahab and her family were indeed the only survivors of the subsequent battle. They were led to safety, on Joshua’s command, by the very men Rahab had saved.

Rahab became the wife of Salmon and mother of Boaz, and thus an ancestor of Jesus (Matthew 1:5). Rahab is listed, along with Moses, David, Samson, and Samuel, as an example of faith (Hebrews 11:31). Her deed is an example of good works and justification (James 2:25).