HOLINESS

Holiness is the chief attribute of God and a quality to be developed in his followers. “Holiness” and the adjective “holy” occur many times in the Bible. The primary Old Testament word for holiness means “to cut” or “to separate.” Fundamentally, holiness is a cutting off or separation from what is unclean and a consecration to what is pure.

HOLINESS IN THE OLD TESTAMENT

In the Old Testament, “holiness” when applied to God refers to his rule over the Creation and to the moral perfection of his character. God is holy in that he is utterly distinct from his creation and exercises sovereign majesty and power over it. His holiness is a major theme in the Psalms (Psalm 47:8) and the Prophets (Ezekiel 39:7), where “holiness” emerges as a synonym for Israel’s God. Scripture assigns to God the titles, “Holy” (Isaiah 57:15), “Holy One” (Job 6:10; Isaiah 43:15), and “Holy One of Israel” (Psalm 89:18; Isaiah 60:14).

In the Old Testament God’s holiness means that the Lord is separate from all that is evil and defiled (Job 34:10). His holy character is the standard of absolute moral perfection (Isaiah 5:16). God’s holiness—his transcendent majesty and the purity of his character—are skillfully balanced in Psalm 99. Verses 1 through 3 portray God’s distance from earthly things, and verses 4 and 5 emphasize his separation from sin and evil.

In the Old Testament God demanded holiness in the lives of his people. Through Moses, God said to Israel, “You shall be holy; for I the LORD your God am holy” (Leviticus 19:2, RSV). The holiness described in the Old Testament had two meanings:

1. External, or ceremonial

2. Internal, or moral and spiritual

Old Testament ceremonial holiness, described in the Pentateuch (the first five books of the Old Testament) included rituals of dedication to God’s service. Thus priests and Levites were sanctified by a complex ritual (Exodus 29:1), as were the Hebrew Nazirites (Numbers 6:1-21). Prophets like Elisha (2 Kings 4:9) and Jeremiah (Jeremiah 1:5) were also sanctified for a special prophetic ministry in Israel.

But the Old Testament also draws attention to the inner, moral, and spiritual aspects of holiness. Men and women, created in the image of God, are called to cultivate the holiness of God’s character in their own lives (Leviticus 19:2). In the New Testament the ceremonial holiness prominent in the Pentateuch moves to the background. Much of Judaism in Jesus’ time sought a ceremonial holiness by works (Mark 7:1-5), so the New Testament stresses the ethical rather than the external dimension of holiness (Mark 7:6-12). With the coming of the Holy Spirit, the early church perceived that holiness of life was a profound internal reality that should govern an individual’s thought and attitudes in relation to persons and objects in the external world.

HOLINESS IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

The New Testament Greek equivalent of the common Hebrew word for holiness signifies an inner state of freedom from moral fault and a relative harmony with the moral perfection of God. The word “godlikeness” or “godliness” captures the sense of the primary Greek word for holiness. There is another Greek word that describes the dominant Old Testament concept of holiness as external separation from the world and dedication to the service of the Lord.

Because the New Testament writers assumed the Old Testament portrait of deity, holiness is ascribed to God in relatively few of their texts. Jesus affirmed the ethical nature of God when he taught his disciples to pray that the Father’s name might be esteemed for what it is, “Hallowed be thy name” (Matthew 6:9, KJV). In the book of Revelation the Father’s moral perfection is described with the threefold ascription of holiness borrowed from Isaiah: “Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God Almighty, who was and is and is to come” (Revelation 4:8, RSV). Luke, however, contemplated God’s holiness in terms of the dominant Old Testament concept of his transcendence and majesty (Luke 1:49).

In the same way the holiness of Jesus Christ is asserted in the New Testament. Luke (Luke 1:35; Luke 4:34), Peter (Acts 3:14), the writer of Hebrews (Hebrews 7:26), and John (Revelation 3:7) ascribe holiness to both the Father and the Son.

Since the Spirit comes from God and is the instrument of God’s holy purposes in the world, he also is absolutely holy (Matthew 1:18; Matthew 3:16). The common title “Holy Spirit” underscores the ethical perfection of the third person of the Godhead (John 3:5-8; John 14:16-17).

In the New Testament, holiness also characterizes Christ’s church. The apostle Paul taught that Christ loved the church and died for it “that he might sanctify her, having cleansed her by the washing of water with the word” (Ephesians 5:26, RSV). Peter addressed the church as a holy people in language borrowed from the Old Testament. Separated from the unbelieving nations and consecrated to the Lord, the church is “a holy nation” (1 Peter 2:9).

The New Testament most often discusses holiness in relation to individual Christians. Believers in Christ are frequently designated as “saints,” literally meaning “holy ones,” since through faith God justifies sinners, pronouncing them “holy” in his sight. A justified sinner is by no means morally perfect, but God does declare believers to be guiltless. Thus, although Christians at Corinth, for example, were plagued with numerous sins, Paul could address his erring friends as those who were “sanctified in Christ Jesus, called to be saints” (1 Corinthians 1:2, RSV). Despite their problems, the Corinthian believers were “holy ones” in Christ.

The New Testament, however, places great stress upon the reality of practical holiness in the Christian’s daily experience. The God who freely declares a person righteous through faith in Christ commands that the believer progress in holiness of life. In God’s plan, a growth in holiness should accompany believing. God graciously provides the spiritual resources to enable Christians to be “partakers of the divine nature” (2 Peter 1:4).

REDEEMER, REDEMPTION

These are two English words derived from a Latin root meaning “to buy back.” The term is used to describe freeing someone from chains, slavery, or prison.

OLD TESTAMENT AND NEW TESTAMENT WORDS

There are three different words used in Hebrew to describe the idea of “redemption.” The meaning of these words comes from ancient Hebrew customs. We must understand their culture to understand these terms.

The first term used for redemption has a legal meaning. The verb padah is used when an animal substitutes for (or redeems) a person or another animal. The noun derived from the root word means the ransom or the price paid. When a living being, person or animal, needs to be redeemed, the substitution must be made, or price paid; otherwise, the creature involved is killed (Exodus 13:13; 34:20). However, there is evidence that this rule was not always strictly followed (21:8; Job 6:23).

The firstborn male in any family, both human and animal, belonged to God. Sometimes the firstborn animal was sacrificed to God, but human firstborns and some animals were redeemed (Exodus 13:13; 34:20; Numbers 18:15-16). In the redemption of the firstborn son, an animal was substituted, although later a sum of money was paid (18:16).

The second term involved is the Hebrew root ga’al, which is used to discuss family rules and obligations, the laws over family property rights and duties. For example, if a piece of property were lost by a family member, the next of kin had both the right and the obligation to redeem this property. This right of redemption protected the family inheritance. The noun derived from this root is equivalent to the English root “redemption,” and the person who buys back the property is the go’el, or redeemer.

An Israelite who was forced to sell himself into slavery to pay his debts could be redeemed by a near relative or even by himself (Leviticus 25:47-49). Land might also be redeemed in the same way (25:25-28; Jeremiah 32:6-9).

The right to be redeemed came to people in special circumstances, as well. The obligation of a man to marry his brother’s widow is well known. In the book of Ruth, the right of redemption is extended to a distant relative. In this story, Boaz redeemed not only the property but Ruth as well, and she became his wife (Ruth 3:13; 4:1-6).

The third term used in Hebrew is the root verb kaphar, which means “to cover.” From this root come the terms meaning to cover sin, atone, or expiate. The noun derived, kopher, means the price paid to cover sin. This term is used to mean the payment made for any life that should be forfeited. A good illustration is the price paid by the owner of an ox that had gored a person to death. Under the law, the owner’s life was forfeited, but he could redeem himself by paying a set amount of money (Exodus 21:28-32).

All three terms are translated by the same Greek verb, luo, meaning “to loose.” The noun lutron (ransom), is used for all three terms on different occasions. This indicates that while the Hebrew used different words for different situations, the same essential meaning of redemption was involved in all situations. The concept of redeeming or freeing was of primary concern.

GOD AS REDEEMER

In the Old Testament God is spoken of as “redeeming his people” as a whole, rather than individuals. The beginning of this concept of national redemption is seen in God’s freeing the people from slavery in Egypt. Though they were in bondage, their God ransomed them (Exodus 6:6; Deuteronomy 15:15).

This idea of redemption required the payment of a set price or the substitution of one life for another. But when God in the Old Testament is spoken of as “redeeming,” he redeems through his might and power, not by paying a price. “I am the LORD, and I will free you from your slavery in Egypt. I will redeem you with mighty power and great acts of judgment” (Exodus 6:6, NLT; compare Deuteronomy 15:15). The same thought is carried forward in other times of need and rescue, such as the time of exile. God is the national Deliverer (for example, Isaiah 29:22; 35:10; 43:1; 44:22; Jeremiah 31:11).

Again there is no suggestion that God paid a price to free his people. God redeems by his own power. “For this is what the LORD says: ‘When I sold you into exile, I received no payment. Now I can redeem you without paying for you’ “ (Isaiah 52:3). When Cyrus let the people free, it was again without payment of a price (45:13).

In the Christian community, especially in the early centuries of the church, there arose the idea that a ransom price was needed to pay for sins. In fact, it was often taught that the sinner was, in effect, held captive by Satan. Christ’s death was the ransom price paid by God to Satan to free sinful people. Scripture does not necessarily say this. The death of Christ is an atonement for sin, but this does not mean that his death was a price paid to Satan. God is not pictured anywhere in Scripture as making some sort of deal with Satan. The redeeming work of salvation through the Cross must always be thought of as a mystery, not as a commercial transaction.

REDEMPTION AND THE MESSIAH

In the Old Testament, redemption is closely linked with the hope of a Messiah. From the time of the Exodus on, God is revealed as deliverer. The hope of redemption is very strong during the time when Israel is captive in Babylon. The prophets constantly speak of God as Redeemer or Deliverer. This hope was to be fulfilled ultimately through God’s anointed one, or Messiah, who would be of the line of David (Isaiah 9:1-6; 11:1-9; Jeremiah 23:5-6).

The messianic hope grew stronger during the periods when Israel was exiled and persecuted. In fact, during the long centuries of persecution, this hope of a messiah was stronger than ever. This period, generally called the intertestamental period, lasted about four centuries and extended from the last of the prophets until the time of John the Baptist and Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus is the Messiah spoken of in the Old Testament. John the Baptist described Jesus of Nazareth as the fulfillment of God’s redemptive kingdom (Matthew 3:12) and hence, the Messiah of Israel. Jesus, the Son of Man, came to give himself as a ransom for many (20:28; Mark 10:45). The Messiah came to die for others, in their place.

Paul expresses the same thought. Christ is the sin offering to the Father (Romans 3:25). He redeems us by giving up his life (Acts 20:28) for a purchased people (1 Peter 2:9; see also 1 Corinthians 7:22-24; 2 Corinthians 5:14-17). These are all words or expressions used to present the idea of redemption or atonement. Jesus Christ fulfilled the redemption promised in the Scriptures and by his sacrifice provided for the redemption of sinners.

The concept of redemption has deep meaning for God’s people. In the Old Testament it illustrates the truth that God is the Savior of his people. Although Israel fell into sin by denying God’s law, God did not destroy them but restored them to favor when they repented.

In the prophets, especially, God’s redemptive work was to be completed through the Messiah and his redemptive sacrifice. The followers of Jesus believed that he was the Messiah who would provide redemption for the whole world. Along with the idea of redemption is the motivating force of divine love as the basis for our restoration (John 3:16). Those who believe will be freed from the bondage of sin and find favor again with their redeeming God.

PRIESTS AND LEVITES

INTRODUCTION

In modern times, the word “priest” is used for a person who leads a church. The word “priest” is also used when we talk about all Christians. For instance, Peter wrote that the church was “a kingdom of priests” (1 Peter 2:9). But when did priests start doing the work of God? What does being a priest mean? To find the answers to these questions, we need to look at the Bible and the historical events that helped shape what priests are today. In the Old Testament, there were three classes of religious workers: the prophets, the wise men (magi), and the priests and Levites.

The prophets were servants of God’s covenant relationship with Israel. Their job usually involved calling disobedient people back to God during hard times. Even though prophets had a very important job, they were not professionals, and they were not paid for the work they did. Prophets did their work only because God had specifically called them to do it.

The wise men were government leaders and teachers. Most of the classes they taught were about morals and godly behavior, but they also had to perform other duties that did not involve religion or worship.

The priests and Levites fulfilled a variety of religious duties and had much in common with priests today. Priests and Levites were professional men who were paid for their full-time religious work. They led religious services and helped the Israelites try to have a good relationship with God. It was a very honorable job, and only a few people were qualified to do it.

THE ORIGINS OF THE PRIESTHOOD

The priesthood in Israel began during the time of Moses and Aaron. The Exodus from Egypt was not only the liberation of a group of Hebrew slaves but also the birth of an entirely new nation—the nation of Israel.

In the Old Testament, there are frequent references to both priests and Levites. In a number of biblical references, however, the distinction between the two is not absolutely clear (Deuteronomy 18:1-8). For scholars, the exact relationship between priests and Levites is a continuing problem that they have not resolved completely. In general terms, only the sons of Aaron were able to become priests. All other Levites would have religious duties to fulfill, but technically they could not be priests. While this distinction is clear in most biblical texts, in others, the difference is not so clear. The only thing known for sure is that priests (Levites descended from Aaron) and Levites (who were not descendants of Aaron) all had professional religious duties to perform. The exact nature of those duties varied from time to time in the course of Israel’s history.

It is easiest to understand the role of the priesthood by looking at the Israelite religion as a whole. At the heart of the Israelite religion was a person’s relationship with God. To be an Israelite or a Jew meant having a continuous and growing relationship with the living God. Both God and the Israelites took part in this relationship in a variety of ways. This included God’s covenant with the Israelites, the temple, worship, and every facet of daily life. The Israelite religion ruled over both a person’s relationship with God and a person’s relationship with other people. It had both a personal and a communal dimension to it. The priests were the guardians and servants of this life that was based on different relationships. By understanding God’s relationship with Israel, it is easier to understand what priests were supposed to do to help maintain that relationship.

When God met with Moses on Mount Sinai to make his covenant with Israel, he gave the Israelites the laws that would govern them. The covenant was established through Moses, the prophet, through whom God gave the offer and conditions of his covenant with Israel. Included in God’s laws were the foundations and origins of the Israelite priesthood. God’s law provides insight into the three basic categories of priesthood: the high priest, the priests, and the Levites.

THE HIGH PRIEST

Any large and complex organization requires a leader, and this was true of the Hebrew priesthood as well (even though in its early days it was a small organization). After the Exodus, religious life in Israel within God’s covenant was to be the primary responsibility of Aaron, who was the first high priest.

Most likely, in the earliest days of Israel’s priesthood, the high priest’s position was relatively informal, and he was a symbolic chief among his fellow priests. Nevertheless, the office was significant and it involved a special inauguration and special clothing. In addition, even though the high priest’s duties were similar to those of the other priests, he had certain exclusive responsibilities. The high priest had administrative duties pertaining to all the priests in his charge. However, his position was weightier than just that of an administrator. In the same way that all priests were the servants and guardians of the covenant relationship, the high priest was the chief servant and the chief guardian. He was responsible for the spiritual matters for all of God’s people, and that is why the Israelites thought the high priest held such an honorable and serious position.

This spiritual seniority of the high priest is seen most clearly in certain tasks he undertook within Israel’s spiritual life. The clearest example may be seen in the annual observation of the Day of Atonement (Yom Kippur). On that day alone, the high priest entered the room at the very center of the tabernacle called the Most Holy Place and, standing before the ark’s cover, the place of atonement (also called the “mercy seat”), he sought God’s forgiveness and mercy for the whole nation of Israel (Leviticus 16:1-19). It is in that ceremony that Israel’s covenant faith is seen most clearly. Israel’s religion required people to have a relationship with the holy God, and the Israelites’ evil and disobedience disrupted that relationship. While all the worship and sacrifices throughout the year were concerned with the continuation of the relationship, the Day of Atonement was the most solemn day of the year, in which the attention of all the people focused upon the meaning of their existence. Life was meaningful only if the Israelites’ relationship with God could be maintained. The high priest had the great honor and enormous responsibility of seeking God’s mercy for all the people in Israel.

The special clothing worn by the high priest was symbolic of the nature and importance of his office. Even though modern readers cannot be sure about all of the symbolism in the Bible, God’s Word is very clear on what a few aspects of a high priest’s clothing represented. There are three particular themes in the symbolism of the priestly wardrobe: beauty, the high priest’s role as a representative before God, and the high priest’s role as God’s spokesperson.

The first theme, beauty, is shown with the quality and the design of all the priestly items of clothing, which used many colors and precious stones (Exodus 28:15). However, the symbol of beauty was most apparent in the chestpiece (also called the “breastplate”). In fact, the Hebrew word for “chestpiece” is based on the Hebrew word for “beauty” or “excellence.”

The second theme is the role of the priest as representative of Israel before God. This essential part of the high priest’s job was represented by two onyx stones in the ephod (one of the special priestly garments) and by the twelve precious stones attached to the chestpiece. The twelve precious stones represented the twelve tribes of Israel. Each time the high priest entered God’s presence, the two stones in the ephod reminded him first, to seek deliverance from God’s judgment for the Israelites (Exodus 28:15), and second, to ask God to always remember the Israelites (Exodus 28:12).

The third theme is the role of high priest as the representative of God to Israel. This dimension of the office is seen in the Urim and Thummim, kept in the chestpiece. By throwing the Urim and Thummim like dice, the high priest would know God’s will for his people. He then would pass this information on to the Israelites.

The high priest, Aaron, fully robed, was a splendid figure, and the splendor of his garments indicated the magnificence of the office with which he had been entrusted. The high priesthood was to be passed on within the family (the high priest was expected to be a married man), although in later history this tradition was not always practiced. After Aaron’s death, Eleazar, one of his four sons, became the next high priest.

THE PRIESTS

People did not decide to become priests. Instead, people became priests by virtue of priestly descent. Because of this, the first priests were the four sons of Aaron: Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar. These four were ordained at the same time that Aaron was ordained high priest (Exodus 28:1). Like Aaron, the priests had special clothing, which was basically similar, though it lacked the distinctive garments of the high priest (the special ephod, the chestpiece, and the crown). After the priests died, their jobs would be passed down to their sons and grandsons.

God wanted all priests to be holy, so he gave the Israelites laws specifically for priests. A man must be a descendant of Aaron to be a priest, but he was also required to meet a variety of other qualifications. He could not marry a divorced woman or a former prostitute (Leviticus 21:7). If he was afflicted by certain kinds of disease or birth defects, he could not become a priest. This included blindness, lameness, mutilation, or being a hunchback or dwarf (Leviticus 21:16-23). The guidelines involved in choosing priests were similar to the guidelines the Israelites used for animals that would be sacrificed. Only animals (and priests) that were free from defect or blemish were suitable for divine service.

The Bible gives us some information about the specific duties of priests in the early days of Israel. For instance, Eleazar was responsible for the tabernacle and its offerings (Numbers 4:16). He also assisted Moses in a number of duties, such as taking a census of the Israelites and dividing the land (Numbers 26:1-2; Numbers 32:2). Later, Eleazar also served as an adviser to Joshua. Ithamar was responsible for the construction of the tabernacle (Exodus 38:21) and supervised the families of the Gershonites and Merarites (Numbers 4:28-33). The Bible does not tell us much about Nadab and Abihu, because they died soon after their ordination as a result of their sinful act, which may have been due in part to drunkenness (Leviticus 10:1-9).

Priestly duties, in general, fell into three areas (Deuteronomy 33:8-10). First, priests were responsible, along with the high priest, for declaring God’s will to the people. Second, they were required to teach God’s ordinances and law to the people of Israel (Deuteronomy 33:10). Finally, priests were required to be the servants of the tabernacle and participate in Israel’s sacrifices and worship. There were a number of other duties priests may have had, but they would have shared these duties with the Levites in general.

The priests, along with all other Levites, did not own any land as the other Israelite tribes did. Their job was to be completely dedicated to serving God. However, because they did not own any land, they could not grow food to eat. Because of this, God’s law decreed that all of the Israelites support the Levites for their services. When people worshiped at the tabernacle, they brought portions of animals, corn, wine, oil, and wool for the priests.

THE LEVITES

The term “Levites” includes all people descended from Levi, including those who were priests. All priests were Levites, therefore, but not all Levites were priests. Thus, when “Levites” is used along with “priests” it refers to the members of the family of Levi who were not priests.

Like the priests, the Levites served in the tabernacle, though they had a subordinate position to the priests. They also were professional men and were paid for their services. Though they did not inherit their own territory (no Levite could own any property), the Bible tells us there were a number of cities set aside for their use (Numbers 35:1-8). Pasturelands were also set aside for the Levites’ animals.

The Levites were divided into three principal families, the descendants of Kohath, Gershon, and Merari and each of these families had particular responsibilities involving the care and transportation of the tabernacle (Numbers 4). The sons of Kohath carried the tabernacle furniture (after it had been covered by the priests). The sons of Gershon were responsible for the coverings and screens. The sons of Merari carried and set up the tabernacle’s frame. These Levites could only be servants of the tabernacle between the ages of 25 and 50 (Numbers 8:24-26).

Although many of the duties of the Levites were fairly mundane, they also had a very significant religious role. The law required that all the firstborn, including firstborn sons, be given to God, which reminded the Israelites of the time God killed all of the Egyptian firstborn sons before the Exodus. The Levites’ role in religion was that of being accepted by God as substitutes for the firstborn sons of Israel (Numbers 3:11-13). In the same way, the Levites’ cattle substituted for the Israelites’ firstborn cattle. However, in a census taken in the time of Moses, the firstborn Israelites exceeded the number of the Levites, and a five-shekel redemption fee had to be paid into the priestly treasury for each person in excess (Numbers 3:40-51). Like the priests, when the Levites were substitutes for the other people in Israel, they were playing a part in the larger activity of mediation between God and Israel.

The law recorded in Deuteronomy specifies a number of duties that may have fallen upon both priests and Levites (though the Bible is not completely clear). These duties included participation in the activity of the law courts as judges, perhaps with special reference to religious crimes (Deuteronomy 17:8-9), taking care of the Book of the Law (Deuteronomy 17:18), controlling the lives and health of lepers (Deuteronomy 24:8), and directly participating in ceremonies to renew Israel’s covenant with God (Deuteronomy 27:9).

THE PRIESTHOOD IN OLD TESTAMENT TIMES

In theory, the covenant law of Moses determined the nature and course of the offices of priests and Levites for the entire future of Israel. In practice, however, historical circumstances and changes in the shape of Israel’s religion and culture altered the shape of the priesthood and the role of the Levites from time to time. Even more significantly, the persons who held the offices shaped and changed the positions and their effectiveness through their faithfulness or unfaithfulness in upholding God’s laws.

THE PRIESTHOOD BEFORE THE MONARCHY

In the time of Joshua, the priests continued to undertake their important task of carrying the ark of the covenant. The Levites helped with the division and allocation of the land the Israelites gained by conquering various people in Canaan. In Joshua 21:1, there is a detailed list of the allocation of cities to both priests and Levites, in fulfillment of the earlier legislation. When the Israelites began settling in Canaan after the conquest, there is some evidence that the Levites took over the priestly duty of transporting the ark (1 Samuel 6:15; 2 Samuel 15:24).

The writer of the book of Judges recorded two stories that illuminate the lives of particular Levites. The first, the story of Micah, describes the establishment of a local shrine in which Micah’s son was appointed as a priest even though he was not a Levite or a descendant of Aaron (Judges 17:1-18). Later, Micah hired a traveling Levite to function as a priest in his shrine, though later that Levite was persuaded to serve the tribe of Dan as a priest. It is difficult for us to see how these decisions followed the rules God set up for priests and Levites. However, this story may illustrate the confused state of Israel’s religion at this time in history. What is particularly significant is that the role of the Levite or priest was primarily as a predictor of the future (Judges 18:5-6). The second story in Judges is the rather horrifying account of a Levite and his concubine (Judges 19:1). The story shows the moral decline and lawlessness in Israel at the time, but it sheds little light on the role of the Levites.

The Bible gives us more information about the changing priesthood during the 11th century BC, right before Israel became a monarchy. The tabernacle (by now probably a somewhat permanent structure) and the ark of the covenant were located in Shiloh. The priest in charge of the sanctuary in Shiloh was Eli. Eli may have been a descendant of Aaron’s son Ithamar. Eli’s two sons, Hophni and Phinehas, also served as priests, indicating that the principle of family descent was still operative with respect to the priesthood. Although Eli was a faithful priest, his two sons abused the office.

The precise role of Samuel in this period is unclear. Samuel was primarily a judge and a prophet, but it is difficult to determine whether he was also a priest. In the historical stories about him, he is not called a priest. However, Psalm 99:6 is interpreted by some people as evidence that he was a priest. In addition to this, there are a number of biblical passages that indicate Samuel acted like a priest. For example, he offered sacrifices (1 Samuel 7:9-10). As a young man he served in the sanctuary of Shiloh and wore an ephod (1 Samuel 2:1). Furthermore, one of the genealogies found later in the Bible show that Samuel was clearly a descendant of earlier priests (1 Chronicles 6:23-30).

Nevertheless, Samuel is not normally identified as a priest and the introduction to his story refers to him not as a Levite, but as an Ephraimite because of his father (1 Samuel 1:1). And if the priest had to be a permanent servant of the sanctuary as Eli was, then it is clear that Samuel was not a priest. But the priestly role of Samuel may perhaps be related to the fact that his mother “gave” him to God (1 Samuel 1:28) while he was still a boy.

THE PRIESTHOOD DURING THE TIME OF DAVID AND SOLOMON

Several radical changes in the priesthood took place during the reign of David and Solomon. Many of these changes were the result of the building of the temple. The temple, unlike the tabernacle, was a permanent building, and the ark of the covenant was installed there permanently. During the time of Saul, the first king of Israel, the social structure was essentially the same as it had been in the time of the judges. Saul, as king, was a military leader, but his relationship to religion and the priesthood was not clearly determined.

David changed the religious situation in Israel in many important respects. After his army captured the city of Jerusalem, he made it the political and religious capital of Israel. When David moved the tabernacle and the ark of the covenant there, it solidified Jerusalem’s position as the religious capital of Israel. At the same time, all of the regional shrines, which had been built before Israel became a monarchy, were gradually eliminated.

These changes had numerous implications for the priesthood and the Levites. During David’s reign, there were two principal priests, Abiathar and Zadok. Abiathar, a former priest of the tribe of Nob, had joined David before David became king. According to the Bible, Abiathar was a descendant of Eli and Ithamar, one of Aaron’s sons. Zadok’s family background is less clear, though his lineage appears to go back to Aaron’s other son, Eleazar. These two priests are always named together in the texts describing David’s reign, and Zadok is always mentioned before Abiathar. Although neither of them is ever identified as the high priest in the Old Testament, there is some evidence that suggests Abiathar was the high priest (1 Kings 2:35). In New Testament times, Jesus refers to him as a high priest (Mark 2:26). During David’s reign, Zadok may have been particularly responsible for the care of the ark of the covenant (2 Samuel 15:24-25). These two priests had a significant position in David’s royal establishment. They also may have shared the responsibility over the other priests, who all gathered to work together at the temple in Jerusalem.

Much of David’s time was focused upon the preparations for building a permanent temple for God. In the preparation for the temple, and in its completion during the reign of King Solomon, the new activities of the Levites may be seen. Because the new temple was going to be permanent, the former responsibilities for transporting God’s house were unnecessary. Many Levites were employed as laborers in the actual building of the temple. Others found new tasks in the worship of God in the tabernacle during David’s reign and in the temple upon its completion. The Levites, especially Heman, Asaph, and Ethan, were responsible for the worship music. This involved not only singing but also playing the variety of instruments in the temple’s orchestra or band. The Levites had also a variety of other tasks, which included working as gatekeepers at the sanctuary, assisting the priest in the preparation of sacrifices, keeping the sanctuary clean, and being legal officers (1 Chronicles 23:1-32). Other Levites were bankers who were primarily responsible for the temple treasuries (1 Chronicles 26:20-28).

After David’s death, there was a dispute over who would be the next king. Eventually, Solomon emerged as the new king of Israel. During his reign, the temple was completed and the regular worship of the nation was conducted there. However, because Abiathar had not supported Solomon during the dispute over kingship, he lost his important office in the royal court. During Solomon’s reign, the control of the priesthood passed solely into the hands of Zadok.

THE PRIESTHOOD DURING THE DIVIDED MONARCHY

Israel’s great empire, which had been built by David and maintained by Solomon, collapsed after Solomon’s death. From the ruins, two new and relatively insignificant states were created. The southern kingdom, Judah, kept Jerusalem as its capital and the temple as its center of worship. The northern kingdom, Israel, made Shechem its first capital. Later, however, the capital was moved to Tirzah.

In the southern state of Judah, the priests and Levites continued to function normally at the temple. The office of high priest continued to be passed down to descendants of Zadok who were the high priests until about 171 BC, when the Zadokite succession was interrupted. Even though religious life in Jerusalem seemed to go on as usual, in other parts of Judah, religious life was rapidly declining. This decline took place during and after the reign of Rehoboam, who was the first king of Judah. During Rehoboam’s reign, there was a decline in religion and also in the priesthood, when popular forms of other religions were brought into Israel from foreign influences (1 Kings 14:22-24). The history of the southern kingdom was marked by periods of religious decline followed by reform, often as a result of prophets calling the people back to God. The priests during this time were rarely good spiritual leaders. More often than not, the priests themselves were the subjects of the prophets’ criticisms (Jeremiah 2:8; Jeremiah 2:26).

The northern kingdom, whose first king was Jeroboam I, inevitably had to introduce some radical changes in religion. Jeroboam could not recognize the temple of Jerusalem as a religious center, partly because it was outside of his state and partly because it was intimately associated with the royal line of David, of which Jeroboam was not a part. Jeroboam established two principal shrines in his kingdom and both remained important during the relatively short life of the northern kingdom that lasted 200 years. The first shrine was at Bethel, in the southern part of Jeroboam’s kingdom near the border of Judah (it was only about 12 miles north of Jerusalem). The second shrine was at Dan, in the far northern part of Jeroboam’s kingdom.

Both of these sanctuaries had ancient associations with the Hebrew traditions. Bethel is referred to as early as the time of Abram (Genesis 12:8), and the sanctuary at Dan is known from the history of the judges (Judges 18:1). There may indeed have been priests and Levites still residing in these two places, descendants of the former servants of the sanctuaries. However, Jeroboam established a non-Levite priesthood to serve in these sanctuaries and in various smaller shrines or “high places.” By doing this, he separated the religion of the northern kingdom even more from the religion of Judah and Jerusalem. The royal sanctuary at Bethel, because it was so close to Jerusalem, may have been set up in deliberate competition with temple in Judah.

The Bible tells us that the priests in the northern kingdom were not any holier than the priests in Judah. Many of the prophets, including Amos, Hosea, and Jeremiah, condemned the northern sanctuaries and their priests. Hosea was very forceful in his condemnation: “Its citizens are bands of robbers, lying in ambush for their victims. Gangs of priests murder travelers along the road to Shechem and practice every kind of sin” (Hosea 6:9). The priests, who were responsible for the spiritual lives of God’s chosen people, rarely lived up to the expectations God gave to them.

PRIESTS AND LEVITES DURING AND AFTER THE EXILE

The northern kingdom came to its end in 722 BC when it was defeated by the armies of Assyria, but religious life continued in Judah for a while longer. Eventually, the Babylonians conquered Judah in 586 BC During this conquest, both Jerusalem and the temple were completely demolished (Lamentations 2:20). The Babylonian commander took Seraiah, the high priest, and Zephaniah, his assistant, to Riblah, where, along with other Hebrew officials, they were executed (2 Kings 25:18-21). The Babylonians then established a policy of exile. This meant the most important and influential people of Judah were deported to Babylon, while the less significant people were allowed to remain because they were less likely to cause trouble. Because of their influential positions, many of the people who were exiled may have been priests (Jeremiah 29:1). However, it seems likely that a smaller number of Levites were exiled which may illustrate their lower status in Judah’s social structure.

During these years of exile, religious life in Jerusalem was probably not very normal. Some religious activity continued, but most likely it was an impoverished form. The Babylonians had destroyed the altar. Most of the priests were in exile in Babylon, and even if they were not, there was no temple or sanctuary in which to hold worship services. Ezekiel implies that God himself was the only “sanctuary” for the exiles (Ezekiel 11:16). It was only after the Hebrews returned from exile, rebuilt Jerusalem and the temple, that the priests and Levites could resume their normal religious routines.

When the Babylonian empire was finally defeated, the new Persian conquerors let many of the Hebrew exiles return to their homeland. The Bible tells us that 4,289 of the returning people were designated as priests or members of priestly families, while only 341 were Levites (Ezra 2:36-42). This imbalance in the numbers probably reflects the imbalance in the number of people who were exiled by the Babylonians.

Under Joshua (Jeshua), the priest, and Zerubbabel, work began on the restoration. The priests played a significant role in the first year of the return. They restored the altar in Jerusalem so that sacrifice and worship could resume. Once the altar had been restored, the priests began to work on the temple itself, and both the priests and the Levites were involved in laying a new foundation for the temple. When the foundation had been laid, both priests, in their special robe vestments, and Levites, in their roles as singers and musicians, participated in the ceremony of dedication (Ezra 3:8-13). There was also another dedication ceremony when the restored temple was completed (Ezra 6:16-18). The restoration, however, was concerned with more than rebuilding buildings. It was a moral and religious rebuilding of the Hebrews as well. This involved a renewing of God’s law. Even though priests and Levites helped initiate some of these new religious changes, they were also affected by it. For example, during the exile, many priests had married foreign wives (Ezra 9:1), and they had to conform to Ezra’s reform laws.

To some extent, the priests and Levites resumed their normal religious duties once the temple was rebuilt. The priests were responsible for worship in the temple. The Levites assisted as temple servants (Nehemiah 11:3), as treasurers and offering collectors (Nehemiah 10:37-39), and as instructors or teachers of God’s law (Nehemiah 8:7-9). Nevertheless, the history of the priesthood after the exile is not free of blemish or wrongdoing. The prophet Malachi seriously condemned the priests for abusing their power. He wrote a long list of all the wrong things priests were doing in the name of God. According to Malachi, the priests after the exile were no different than the evil priests during the monarchy (Malachi 1:6-2:9).

After the exile, the high priests continued to be descendants of Zadok. The first high priest after the exile was Joshua (Haggai 1:1). The different political circumstances, however, changed the nature of the high priest’s job. In the days of the monarchy, the high priest was a servant of the king. However, after the exile, Israel had no king. The Israelites were members of a colony and they were simply viewed by the Persians as a small community with a common religion. The high priest was no longer a servant of a secular king, even though his religious authority stayed the same. In some ways, after the exile, the high priest became almost a king figure for the people of Israel because they did not have a king.

THE PRIESTHOOD IN THE MACCABEAN PERIOD

During the second century BC, some changes took place in the priesthood, particularly with respect to the office of high priest. This marked the end of the Old Testament era and set the background for the New Testament period. In the second century BC, the Israelites were ruled by the Seleucid kings, who had inherited a portion of the massive Greek empire established by Alexander the Great. The kings of Seleucia gave authority to the Israeli high priests, who then did most of the governing for the Judean province.

For the first three decades of the second century BC, high priests were all descendants of Zadok. First, the high priest Onias III held office from 198-174 BC. After that, his brother, Jason, became the next high priest from 171-141 BC While Jason was high priest, a series of events took place that would terminate the Zadokite tradition.

Onias III had opposed the Hellenization policy of the ruler Antiochus IV, which threatened to undermine the Jewish faith. Because of this opposition, Antiochus replaced Onias III with his brother, Jason, who had paid money to the Seleucid king to become the next high priest. By paying for the high priest’s position, Jason set a dangerous precedent. Although he was a descendant of Zadok, his act implied that the office could be bought and that family descent was not vital. Jason’s opponents, the Tobiads, were able to remove Jason from office and have their own candidate, Menelaus (who was not a descendant of Zadok), replace him. This act caused a civil war between people who supported Jason and those who supported Menelaus. Because of this, Antiochus IV was forced to take severe measures to stop the war. There were massacres in Jerusalem and the temple was desecrated. This eventually led to the Maccabean revolt, which allowed the Jews to regain their independence for a short time. Menelaus continued to be the high priest until 161 BC when Alcimus succeeded him. Alcimus was high priest from 161-159 BC

After this, there was a seven-year period where Israel had no high priest. However, because of the rapidly changing political climate, it was unlikely that any descendant of Zadok would be high priest again, even though his family line had been established in the time of King Solomon. Jonathan, a Maccabean, gained control of Jerusalem, and in 152 BC, with the approval of the Seleucid king, became the next high priest of Israel. His brother Simon succeeded him in 143 BC. He was also approved to be priest by the Seleucid king. In the third year of Jason’s reign, the Israelites also voiced their approval of Simon at a great religious assembly, and the family of Simon became “high priest forever” (1 Maccabees 14:41-47). That event marked the end of the Zadokite priestly line and marked the beginning of the Hasmonean line of priests.

Not all of the people in Israel agreed with Simon’s high priesthood because he was not a descendant of Zadok. In fact, it is probable that a sect within Judaism, now known as the Essenes, started because they were people who disagreed with Simon’s position as high priest. The Essenes (who are better known for writing down the Dead Sea Scrolls) appear to have been founded by a descendant of Zadok who rejected the authority of Simon. In a limited sense, the Zadokite priests continued to survive.

THE PRIESTHOOD IN NEW TESTAMENT TIMES

It is important to distinguish between two types of priesthoods mentioned in the Bible. First, the Jewish priesthood continued to operate during and after Jesus’ time. However, Jesus’ work on earth radically changed the Jewish religion forever. When Jesus rose from the dead, he became the eternal High Priest.

THE JEWISH PRIESTHOOD

In the early New Testament period, both priests and Levites continued to do their work within the Jewish religion. The father of John the Baptist, Zechariah, was a priest who was a member of the division of Abijah (Luke 1:5). His wife was also of priestly descent. When Zechariah was visited by an angel, he had priestly duties at the Jerusalem temple. At that time, various divisions of priests took responsibility for the services at the temple for a certain period of time and then they returned to their homes and another division of priests would take over (Luke 1:23). Just as in the Old Testament, there was a distinction between priests and Levites in the New Testament (John 1:19). In fact, Jesus distinguishes between priests and Levites in his parable about the Good Samaritan (Luke 10:31-32). Both priests and Levites were some of the first people to convert to Christianity. Barnabas was a Levite from Cyprus (Acts 4:36), and the Bible mentions several other priests who became Christians after hearing the gospel (Acts 6:7).

The office of high priest is frequently referred to in the New Testament and several high priests are named. However, in the New Testament, the high priest was mainly a political figure instead of a religious leader. The two most important high priests in the New Testament are those who were high priest during Jesus’ lifetime. Annas was high priest about AD 6 to 15, but even after he ceased to hold the office formally, he continued to exert considerable influence through his son-in-law, the high priest Caiaphas, who was high priest from about AD 18 to 36. Both of these high priests were significant figures during Jesus’ trial. Later on, Ananias, son of Nedebaeus, was high priest and president of the Sanhedrin when Paul was brought to trial.

In the New Testament, the priests had considerable authority. Most of the internal and religious matters in the Roman province of Judea were governed by the Sanhedrin, which functioned as a kind of provincial government, even though the Roman empire had the final word on all matters. The Sanhedrin’s members included the current and former high priests and a large number of Sadducees who were members of influential priestly families. This priestly influence in the Sanhedrin was indicative of the important role of the temple in Jewish life during the first century AD.

In AD 70, following the destruction of the temple in Jerusalem, a radical change came about in the significance of the priesthood in Judaism. Because the temple was completely demolished, there was no real need for priests anymore. Although priests continued to serve until the Bar-Kochba rebellion in AD 135, after AD 70 it was only a matter of time before the priesthood was eliminated completely. Since the end of the first century AD, Judaism has developed without priests. Instead, rabbis, who are spiritual descendants of the Pharisees, have become the spiritual leaders for the Jewish people.

THE NEW PRIESTHOOD

The letter to the Hebrews explains that the Old Testament priesthood was fulfilled and completed by Jesus Christ. First of all, God himself appointed Jesus to be the eternal High Priest (Hebrews 5:4-6), and Jesus’ priesthood is superior to Aaron’s (Hebrews 7:1). Second, Jesus was tempted in all ways and is sympathetic to the needs of people, but he is without sin (Hebrews 4:15; Hebrews 7:26). Third, instead of offering animal sacrifices to take away sin, Jesus offers himself as the Lamb to take away the sins of everyone who believes in him. He offers complete forgiveness for all people (Hebrews 7:27; Hebrews 9:24-28; Hebrews 10:10-19).

Not only was the Old Testament religious system fulfilled by Jesus, but he also completed it with his unique, unrepeatable, and unlimited sacrifice. Because he rose from the dead, Jesus is a priest forever (Hebrews 7:17), and he does not change as time goes by (Hebrews 13:8). Jesus is the mediator of a new and better covenant (Hebrews 7:22; Hebrews 8:6; Hebrews 9:15). People will be allowed to enter God’s holy presence if they believe in Jesus (John 14:6; 2 Corinthians 5:18-20; 1 Timothy 2:5). Because of this, Jesus is the spiritual authority of all Christians.

There are numerous times in the New Testament where Christians are described as priests. Peter writes that Christians are “God’s holy priests, who offer the spiritual sacrifices that please him because of Jesus Christ” (1 Peter 2:5). John writes that Christians are “priests who serve before God” (Revelation 1:6), “God’s kingdom and his priests” (Revelation 5:10), and “priests of God and of Christ” (Revelation 20:6). John also writes that all Christians will eventually reign with Jesus for a thousand years.

What, then, does the priesthood of all believers mean in the New Testament? When we talk about Christ’s priesthood, we are talking about his complete dedication and obedience to God and his unlimited compassion for fellow human beings. At the center of Christ’s position as High Priest is his sacrificial death on the cross. In the same way, God expects all Christians to be completely obedient. This involves worshiping God and being compassionate to fellow human beings. Paul wrote, “Give your bodies to God. Let them be a living and holy sacrifice—the kind he will accept. When you think of what he has done for you, is this too much to ask?” (Romans 12:1). Under the direction of the Holy Spirit, each Christian offers his whole body to Christ and each local church offers itself wholly to Christ. Christ then offers his whole body (which is the church) to God the Father. Because of this chain, the priesthood of all believers becomes a very effective tool to do the work of God.

ISRAELITES

The Israelites were God’s chosen people group. They were the people God helped to win battles and to conquer land. God pulled the Israelites out of slavery and brought them to another home in another land.

Jacob was the first Israelite. The book of Genesis describes a wrestling match Jacob had with God. After a night of wrestling, Jacob lost and God gave him a new name, “Israel” (Genesis 32:28). Jacob’s twelve sons were the premier generation of God’s people. The Israelites went through many phases of obedience and disobedience to God. Nevertheless, God’s promise to the Israelite people to make them a great nation was fulfilled in Jesus Christ, a descendant from David.

RELATIONSHIPS

WHAT GENERAL PRINCIPLES DOES THE BIBLE GIVE US ABOUT RELATIONSHIPS?

BIBLE READING: Exodus 33:7-11

KEY BIBLE VERSE: Inside the Tent of Meeting, the LORD would speak to Moses face to face, as a man speaks to his friend. Afterward Moses would return to the camp, but the young man who assisted him, Joshua son of Nun, stayed behind in the Tent of Meeting. (Exodus 33:11)

OUR RELATIONSHIP TO GOD IS OUR MOST IMPORTANT RELATIONSHIP.

God and Moses talked face to face in the Tent of Meeting, just as friends do. Why did Moses find such favor with God? It certainly was not because he was perfect, gifted, or powerful. Rather, it was because God chose Moses, and Moses in turn relied wholeheartedly on God’s wisdom and direction. Friendship with God was a true privilege for Moses, out of reach for the other Hebrews. But it is not out of reach for us today. Jesus called his disciples-and, by extension, all of his followers-his friends (John 15:15). He has called you to be his friend. Will you trust him as Moses did?

BIBLE READING: John 16:16-33

KEY BIBLE VERSE: At that time you won’t need to ask me for anything. The truth is, you can go directly to the Father and ask him, and he will grant your request because you use my name. You haven’t done this before. Ask, using my name, and you will receive, and you will have abundant joy. (John 16:23-24)

OUR RELATIONSHIP TO GOD IS MADE POSSIBLE THROUGH JESUS.

Jesus is talking about a new relationship between the believer and God. Previously, people approached God through priests. After Jesus’ resurrection, any believer could approach God directly. A new day has dawned and now all believers are priests, talking with God personally and directly (see Hebrews 10:19-23). We approach God, not because of our own merit, but because Jesus, our great high priest, has made us acceptable to God.

BIBLE READING: 2 Corinthians 6:14-18

KEY BIBLE VERSE: Don’t team up with those who are unbelievers. How can goodness be a partner with wickedness? How can light live with darkness? (2 Corinthians 6:14)

OUR RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHERS SHOULD NOT COMPROMISE OUR FAITH.

Paul urges believers not to form binding relationships with nonbelievers because this might weaken their Christian commitment, integrity, or standards. It would be a mismatch. Earlier, Paul had explained that this did not mean isolating oneself from nonbelievers (see 1 Corinthians 5:9-10). Paul even tells Christians to stay with their nonbelieving spouses (1 Corinthians 7:12-13). Paul wants believers to be active in their witness for Christ to nonbelievers, but they should not lock themselves into personal or business relationships that could cause them to compromise their faith. Believers should avoid situations that could force them to divide their loyalties.

BIBLE READING: Ephesians 2:11-22

KEY BIBLE VERSE: We who believe are carefully joined together, becoming a holy temple for the Lord. Through him you Gentiles are also joined together as part of this dwelling where God lives by his Spirit. (Ephesians 2:21-22)

OUR RELATIONSHIPS WITH OTHERS ARE MADE POSSIBLE THROUGH JESUS.

There are many barriers that can divide us from other Christians: age, appearance, intelligence, political persuasion, economic status, race, theological perspective. One of the best ways to stifle Christ’s love is to be friendly with only those people that we like. Fortunately, Christ has knocked down the barriers and has unified all believers in one family. His cross should be the focus of our unity. The Holy Spirit helps us look beyond the barriers to the unity we are called to enjoy.

VOWS

WHAT DOES GOD SAY ABOUT OUR PROMISES?

BIBLE READING: Leviticus 5:4-6

KEY BIBLE VERSE: If they make a rash vow of any kind, whether its purpose is for good or bad, they will be considered guilty even if they were not fully aware of what they were doing at the time. (Leviticus 5:4)

GOD EXPECTS US TO TAKE OUR PROMISES VERY SERIOUSLY.

Have you ever sworn to do or not do something and then realized how foolish your promise was? God’s people are called to keep their word, even if they make promises that are tough to keep. Jesus was warning against swearing (in the sense of making vows or oaths) when he said, “Just say a simple ’Yes, I will’ or ’No, I won’t’ ” (Matthew 5:37). Our word should be enough. If we feel we have to strengthen it with an oath, something is wrong. The only promises we ought not to keep are promises that lead to sin. A wise and self-controlled person avoids making rash promises.

BIBLE READING: Proverbs 20:25

KEY BIBLE VERSE: It is dangerous to make a rash promise to God before counting the cost. (Proverbs 20:25)

GOD TAKES OUR PROMISES SERIOUSLY AND WILL HOLD US TO THEM.

This proverb points out the evil of making a vow rashly and then reconsidering it. God takes vows seriously and requires that they be carried out (Deuteronomy 23:21-23). We often have good intentions when making a vow-we want to show God that we are determined to please him. Jesus, however, says it is better not to make promises to God because he knows how difficult they are to keep (Matthew 5:33-37). If you still feel it is important to make a vow, make sure that you weigh the consequences of breaking that vow. (In Judges 11, Jephthah made a rash promise to sacrifice the first thing he saw on his return home. As it happened, he saw his daughter first.) It is better not to make promises than to make them and then later want to change them. It is better still to count the cost beforehand and then to fulfill them.

BIBLE READING: Matthew 5:33-37

KEY BIBLE VERSE: Just say a simple, “Yes, I will,” or “No, I won’t.” Your word is enough. To strengthen your promise with a vow shows that something is wrong. (Matthew 5:37)

JESUS EMPHASIZED THE IMPORTANCE OF KEEPING OUR WORD.

People were breaking promises and using sacred language casually and carelessly. Keeping oaths and promises is important; it builds trust and makes committed human relationships possible. The Bible condemns making vows or taking oaths casually, giving your word while knowing that you won’t keep it, or swearing falsely in God’s name (Exodus 20:7; Leviticus 19:12; Numbers 30:1-2; Deuteronomy 19:16-20). Oaths are needed in certain situations only because we live in a sinful society that breeds distrust.

GOD EXPECTS US TO BE KNOWN AS PEOPLE WHO KEEP OUR WORD.

Oaths, or vows, were common, but Jesus told his followers not to use them-their word alone should be enough (see James 5:12). Are you known as a person of your word? Truthfulness seems so rare that we feel we must end our statements with “I promise.” If we tell the truth all the time, we will have less pressure to back up our words with an oath or promise.

ATONEMENT, DAY OF

The Day of Atonement is known as Yom Kippur, the most important day in the religious calendar of Israel. It falls on the 10th day of Tishri (the Hebrew month corresponding to mid-September through mid-October). Historically, on that day the high priest entered the Holy of Holies of the tabernacle (or temple) to atone for the sins of all Israel. Atonement is a “covering” of sin. The purpose is to accomplish reconciliation between man and God. In the New Testament the Day of Atonement was referred to as the “fast” (Acts 27:9). To the rabbis, it was the “Day” or the “Great Day.”

Although many additional rites were added over the centuries, the original Day of Atonement Leviticus 16 focused on complete atonement by sacrifice. First, the high priest removed his official garments, made for beauty and glory. He clothed himself in white linen as a symbol of repentance and went about the duties of the day. Next, he offered a bull calf as a sin offering for the priests and himself. That done, he entered the Holy of Holies with a censer of live coals from the altar of incense, filling the area with incense. He sprinkled the bullock’s blood on the mercy seat and on the floor before the ark of the covenant. Then he cast lots over two live goats brought by the people. He killed one of the goats as a sin offering for the nation, taking the blood inside the veil and sprinkling it as before, thus atoning even for the Holy Place. He confessed the sins of the nation over the live goat as he placed his hands on its head. Finally he sent the live goat, called the scapegoat, into the wilderness. Symbolically it carried away the sins of the people. Then the high priest clothed himself in his usual apparel and offered a burnt offering for himself and one for the people with the fat of the sin offering. Outside the camp the flesh of the bull calf and goat was burned.

Other Old Testament references to the Day of Atonement include Exodus 30:10; Leviticus 23:26-32, giving the date in a list of all the annual feasts; Leviticus 25:9-16, stating that each jubilee year began on the Day of Atonement; and Numbers 29:7-11.

The Day of Atonement became so central to Judaism that it survived the destruction of the temple in AD 70 and the end of the sacrificial system. It is the highest holy day of Judaism now. In biblical times, celebration of the Day of Atonement showed that Israel believed the cleansing of their sins was accomplished by the rites commanded by God. The forgiveness and grace of God were granted them and were the basis for their continued fellowship with God as his covenant people. Because it was designated as a sabbath of solemn rest (Leviticus 16:31; 23:32), all work was forbidden on that day as on the weekly observance of the Sabbath.

As with all the prescribed sacrifices throughout the year, the question arises as to the need for a special time for atonement. It is clear that the ritual was meant to avert God’s wrath for sins already committed as well as to guarantee the continued presence of God. The sacrifice of the first goat and the sending away of the scapegoat were intended to cleanse the nation, the priesthood, and the sanctuary from sin. The intent of the whole sacrificial system reached its highest expression on that day, called by some the “Good Friday of the Old Testament.” The daily, weekly, and monthly sacrifices left something undone, so that the high priest could not enter the holiest place throughout the year. On that one day, however, he was permitted to enter with sacrificial blood as he solemnly represented the nation before the bloodstained mercy seat. The high priest acted as a mediator between the nation and God.

The underlying reason for the day was that other offerings for sin could not provide for unknown (“secret”) sins. Because of such sins the sanctuary, the land, and the nation remained ritually unclean. The Day of Atonement was instituted by God for the complete atonement of all sin (Leviticus 16:33).

SINA, SINAI

On this mountain, God met Moses and gave him the Ten Commandments and the rest of the law. The name applies not only to the mountain itself but to the desert around it (Leviticus 7:38), as well as the entire peninsula embraced by the two arms of the Red Sea known as the Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba (or Elath).

The name is probably related to Sin (wilderness of) and may even be an alternate spelling (Exodus 16:1; Numbers 33:11-12). Sin is one name of the ancient moon god that desert dwellers worshiped. The mountain is also called Horeb, mostly in Deuteronomy.

The traditional location of Mount Sinai is among the mountains at the southern end of the Sinai Peninsula. Since at least the fourth century, Christians have venerated Jebel Musa (Mount Moses in Arabic) as the site where God molded the families of Jacob into the nation of Israel. A Greek Orthodox monastery of Saint Catherine at the base of the 7,500-foot (2,286-meters) peak has been there for over 1,500 years. Other candidates for the holy mountain have been the nearby Jebel Katerina (8,670 feet, or 2,642.6 meters) and Jebel Serbal (6,800 feet, or 2,072.6 meters). Some scholars prefer a northern location near Kadesh-barnea, while others argue for a volcanic mountain across the gulf to the east in ancient Midian or Arabia (Exodus 3:1; Galatians 4:25).

Most references to Sinai are in Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers because these are the books that report the giving of the law and the two-year encampment of the Israelites on the plains adjacent to the mountain. Exodus 19 and 34 especially are replete with references because these are the chapters that describe the encounters between Moses and Yahweh on the two occasions when the law was actually given.

In both the Old Testament and New Testament, Sinai came to represent the place where God came down to his people. In the blessing of Moses (Deuteronomy 33:2), the song of Deborah (Judges 5:5), Psalm 68:8 and 17, the confession of the Levites in the time of Nehemiah (Nehemiah 9:13), and the speech of Stephen (Acts 7:30-38), Sinai was remembered as the scene of that momentous encounter. Paul, in Galatians 4:21-26, spells out an allegory in which Mount Sinai represents the old covenant, slavery, and the present city of Jerusalem.